Revelation of God

3.1.3 Claim: God Revealed Himself in Creation (BIB-IS10)

This area of study is commonly referred to as General Revelation where God shows himself generally, to everyone. It is ongoing, sustained disclosure about Himself or His attributes to all people at all times. General revelation is general in its scope (subject matter) and general in its content.

Two ways that General Revelation comes to us. First, we observe the nature of God externally in our world (outside us). Second, we observe the nature of God internally through our conscience (inside us).

External General Revelation

God reveals himself to all people at all times through creation. This type of revelation is analogous to a broadcast radio tower. The message is broadcast loud and clear for everyone to hear. All are able to hear and understand the message.

Even where there is no Bible or knowledge of Jesus or any other specifics about God and Christianity, God is showing his glory through creation, so every human can know He is the creator. Nature is a grand theatre and every human being is in the audience. There is no one who does not have access to it. John Calvin (Commentary on the Psalms-Vol. 5) saw the world as God’s theatre where his glory is always on display,

"The whole world is a theatre for the display for the divine goodness, wisdom, justice, and power."

What can we learn about God from General Revelation? First and foremost, that God exists. We can learn of his attributes and character: He is creative, orderly, expressive, artistic, powerful, majestic, transcendent (above and beyond us). He is the author of beauty, pattern, structure, growth. He is the giver and creator of life.

The visible world displays the knowledge of a transcendent God. We can know by looking at creation that we have not created it, we are not God.

This claim was originally espoused by the apostle Paul in his Epistle to the Romans.

"They know the truth about God because he has made it obvious to them. For ever since the world was created, people have seen the earth and sky. Through everything God made, they can clearly see his invisible qualities—his eternal power and divine nature. So, they have no excuse for not knowing God." (Romans 1:19-20 NLT)

In this passage, Paul is saying that from the created order, God's power and nature are abundantly obvious and self-evident. By using logical and empirical methods we can readily observe the power and nature of a transcendent God. This claim is true whether we look through a telescope to observe the heavens or through a microscope to observe the microbial world.

According to Psalm 19,

"The heavens proclaim the glory of God. The skies display his craftsmanship. Day after day they continue to speak. Night after night they make him known. They speak without a sound or word; their voice is never heard. Yet, their message has gone throughout the earth, and their words to all the world." (Psalm 19:1-4 NLT)

In this passage, the psalmist is declaring that we can observe the magnificence and handiwork of God in his creation.

The message God is broadcasting to all mankind is not audible, it is visual. It is not subject to interpretation as is audible communication.

The notion that God reveals himself in creation is best evidenced by the emergence of religious beliefs among indigenous tribes [ATH-EV71]. Numerous sociological and anthropological studies reveal that most indigenous tribes have well developed religious beliefs derived from nature and human experience.

From nature, they derived religious beliefs that include the existence of a creator-god, spirits and a spiritual realm. From both nature and a God-given moral conscience, they derived religious beliefs that include the existence of evil and systems of morality that govern social conduct. These belief systems are reinforced by rituals that build community and perpetuate their beliefs from one generation to the next.

Religious beliefs among indigenous tribes are surprisingly consistent. Because of this consistency and the consistency with Christian religious beliefs, one can conclude that God's imprint on nature and the human conscience is clearly observable by all peoples. It further demonstrates that God's imprint on the created order was done with intention.

Internal General Revelation

God reveals himself in human hearts. Genesis declares that we were made in God's moral image (Genesis 1:27). Innately, we are designed with a conscience to discern right from wrong.

According the apostle Paul,

"Even Gentiles, who do not have God’s written law, show that they know his law when they instinctively obey it, even without having heard it. They demonstrate that God’s law is written in their hearts, for their own conscience and thoughts either accuse them or tell them they are doing right." (Romans 2:14-15 NLT)

From this passage, we learn the following:

• Everyone has a conscience. Though many have never heard of the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20), all people have a basic sense of right and wrong.
• This conscience is something given to us by God. It comes from outside us. It is objective and absolute, not subjective or relative. It is based on God's moral law (Exodus 20).
• The fact that all people on earth have a conscience is a powerful testimony that the law is "written in their hearts" just as Paul said.
• There is a duality within our hearts. Our conscience is a messenger from God, continuously relaying his truth about right and wrong. This messenger from God often conflicts with our own sense of right and wrong. Even though we do wrong, we all have an inner sense of the "wrongness of wrong" and acknowledge we should do right.
• While we may suppress or deny our innate sense of God's moral law, we cannot eradicate it. Because we are made in the image of God, his moral law is permanently written on our hearts and consciences.

This conscience serves us when we are presented with conflicting truths. These conflicts cause within us an inner sense of moral dissonance. As we rely on our God-given sense of morality, we are able to discern right from wrong. We experience peace when we choose rightly or guilt when we choose wrongly.

This type of discernment is different than "common sense". Common sense is shaped by external influences such as popular opinion and normative, social practices.

This notion of an inner sense of morality is best evidenced by research findings from The Baby Lab at Yale University. Affectionately known as The Baby Lab, Karen Wynn and her team found that infants are able to discern between good and bad at an early age. Through the use of a puppet show, 3-month-old infants select the good puppet 87% of the time, whereas older infants select the good puppet only 80% of the time. Their claim is that the reason morality diminishes over time is because of the infant's need to compromise.

Researchers attribute this moral innateness to the process of natural selection. Through natural selection we refine and codify our moral predisposition into DNA. Their claim is that this process is aided by human reinforcement of proper moral conduct.

Christians however, credit the nature and origin of our moral predisposition to God. We learn from Genesis 1:27 that all human beings are created in the image of God. God's image refers to our spiritual capacity to understand and experience God and his Law. Therefore, this sense of morality is more than biology. It is a spiritual function of the human soul (Hebrews 4:12).

Conclusion

God has left behind markers in creation. These markers are self-disclosing. They are not hidden but readily visible to every human being. These markers ultimately point us to the nature of God, and the nature of evil.

These markers include:

• Glory of God - The glory of a benevolent creator-God is readily seen in the grandeur of creation. We observe his meticulous design in every aspect of creation. His desire is to draw attention to himself as the creator.
• Consequence of Sin/Evil - The consequences of human sin are evidenced in the world. According the apostle Paul, all creation is "groaning" for a full restoration of God's original design (Romans 8:21-23). Until then, this world is in a state of brokenness and turmoil.
• Moral Conscience - Our God-given moral conscience instinctively guides us toward virtuous conduct. Without this moral guidance our societies would devolve into a state of anarchy. We have an inner sense that there exists an absolute truth that transcends our human understanding and experience. This search for truth points us to a transcendent, holy God.

While we live in an age of prosperity, we sense that something is missing in life. God's purpose in General Revelation is to create within us a thirst that causes us to yearn for a more complete knowledge of him.

Claim 3.2: Inspiration of God's Revealed Word (BIB-IS11)

Summary: https://open.spotify.com/episode/1s664PUFjz9rQSoA4E5deo God not only revealed Himself to everyone through His created world but also revealed Himself in human words. This process of divine inspiration is affirmed by testimony from the writers of scripture and Jesus. The overarching storyline of the Bible is remarkably singular and invariant, even though it is composed of 66 books and written by 40 writers over the course of 1,500 years. This demands that there is a single author, namely God.

This claim is supported by the following evidence.

Evidence 3.2.1: Writers' Affirmation (BIB-EV94)

Summary: https://open.spotify.com/episode/030tZPwSTeVTjxJrEYeu8V The writers of the Bible affirm that God's Spirit breathed into them the words of God himself. God guided them in thought and word to record God's meaning and intentions, not theirs.

What do the writers of scripture say about the inspiration of their writing? Were their thoughts directed by their own understanding, or was it directed by God himself?

Overwhelmingly, the writers of the Bible affirm that God's Spirit breathed into them the words of God himself. God guided the writer's thoughts and words so that the meaning and intent of their writing reflected God's meaning and intentions, not theirs [REF-GEI03].

Old Testament Inspiration Claims

The general claim for inspiration in the Old Testament is based on the fact that it presented itself to and was received by the people of God as a prophetic utterance (2 Peter 1:20-21). Books written by God’s prophets were preserved in a holy place. Moses placed the law in the ark of God (Deuteronomy 10:2). Later it was preserved in the tabernacle for teaching future generations. Each prophet after Moses added his inspired writing to this collection.

The key to the inspiration of the Old Testament is the prophetic function of its writers. A prophet was the mouthpiece of God. He was chosen by God. He was called a man of God, revealing that he was chosen of God. His occupation was a messenger of the Lord (Isaiah 42:19).

All of the Old Testament writers were prophets. All the traditional authors of the Old Testament were designated as prophets by either title or function. About a dozen times, the New Testament indicates that all the inspired writings from Moses to Jesus are considered to be the imperishable word of God (Matthew 5:18, Luke 16:16). Jesus speaks of the Law and Prophets being "all the Scriptures" (Luke 24:27).

New Testament Inspiration Claims

The inspiration of the New Testament is based on the promise of Christ that his disciples would be directed by the Spirit in their teachings about Him. His disciples claimed this promise, and there is clear indication that the writers of the New Testament themselves, as well as their contemporaries, recognized it as accomplished. Jesus did not write any books. He commended the authority of the Old Testament and promised to inspire the New Testament. He promised divine authority for the apostolic witness about Himself.

He commissioned the twelve apostles and promised them the direction of the Holy Spirit (Matthew 10:7). The apostles claimed for their teaching precisely what Jesus promised, the authority of God. They made specific claims in their writings for divine authority. Luke claims to give an accurate account of what "Jesus began to do and teach" (Acts 1:1). He implies that Acts records what Jesus continued to do and teach through the apostles. The first church is said to have been characterized by devotion to "the apostles’ teaching (Acts 2:42).

Even the teachings of Paul were subjected to apostolic approval (Acts 15). The New Testament church itself is said to be "built on the foundation of the apostles and New Testament prophets" (Ephesians 2:20, Ephesians 3:5).

The qualification that a member of the twelve apostles must be either an assistant or an eyewitness of Jesus’ ministry and resurrection eliminates any succession of apostles beyond the first century. There is no apostolic teaching that is not found in the 27 books of the New Testament. The 66 books alone are considered inspired or divinely authoritative because only these have been found to be truly apostolic or prophetic.

Testimony of the Apostle Paul

The apostle Paul states that all scripture, Old and New Testaments, is god-breathed.

"God uses it to prepare and equip his people to do every good work. All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness, so that the servant of God may be thoroughly equipped for every good work." (2 Timothy 3:16-17 NIV)

The Bible claims verbal inspiration for itself. Paul claims in 2 Timothy 3:16 that it is the grapha or writings that are inspired. The explicit reference is to the Old Testament.

The New Testament is also considered Scripture. Peter includes the epistles of Paul along with the "other scriptures" of the Old Testament (2 Peter 3:15).

Likewise, in 1 Timothy 5:18, Paul refers to the Old Testament Book of Deuteronomy (Deuteronomy 25:4) and the Gospel of Luke (Luke 10:7) as "Scripture."

When the New Testament describes itself as inspired it uses a Greek word, theopneustos, which means God-breathed (Greek theos means God; Greek pneuma means spirit, wind, breath).

In the Old Testament, we find a Hebrew word ruach, which is the word for breath and spirit. Genesis 2:7 tells us, "God formed a man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life and the man became a living being." It wasn’t until God breathed the breath of life into Adam that he became a living being.

Testimony of the Apostle Peter

The apostle Peter states that the writers of scripture, Old and New Testaments, were carried along by God's Spirit.

"Above all, you must understand that no prophecy of Scripture came about by the prophet’s own interpretation of things. For prophecy never had its origin in the human will, but prophets, though human, spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit." (2 Peter 1:20-21 NIV)

Peter is saying here that the human writers of Scripture were "carried along" (Greek: pheronemoi) by the Holy Spirit. What this means is that God inspired the writer’s choice of words and the whole of Scripture, not just parts. God, through the Holy Spirit, guided the writer's thoughts and word choices while preserving their personalities so that the meaning and intent of their writing reflected God's meaning and intentions. God’s ideas and writer’s words are in perfect alignment. God did not override the author’s natural writing style but used it to bring the text into being.

God maintained the integrity of his words given to human authors so that exactly what he wanted to say was communicated. While the human author’s style of writing comes through, God's truths are preserved.

God chose to use human authors who communicated God’s message in human words so that His communication to us, then and now, would be recorded. He was telling us about himself, revealing himself in ways we can understand.

Luke uses this same word in Acts 27:13-15 NIV where he describes how their ship was "driven along" (pheronemoi) by the wind and the storm at sea. The word is an ancient Greek nautical term that means "carried along." In 2 Peter 1:20-21, Peter is describing the human authors were carried along by the Holy Spirit, just as a sailing vessel is carried along by the wind. Just as the boat has an intended destination, the "destination" of the writers of Scripture is the text of the Bible. Their end result of their God-led journey is the content of Scripture.

Conclusion

The testimony of the writers of scripture clearly states that neither the prophets of the Old Testament nor the apostles of the New Testament wrote based on their own understanding or interpretation but wrote what they heard from God himself through the divine influence of the Holy Spirit.

Resources:

• From God to Us (REF-GEI03)

Evidence 3.2.2: Jesus' Affirmation (BIB-EV95)

Summary: https://open.spotify.com/episode/04I6myGeQlFBVIBDHw8T3n Because Jesus is God, he is able to claim with authority that the Old Testament scriptures and his teachings are divinely inspired. Throughout his ministry, he declares the scriptures to be authoritative, eternal, immutable, inerrant, supreme and prophetically accurate.

What does Jesus say about the inspiration of the scriptures? Did he attribute the truth of the scriptures to individual writers, or did he attribute it to God?

Jesus affirmed that all scripture is divinely inspired. He states emphatically that the Old Testament and his teachings are rooted in God's truth [HIS-EV29].

Jesus' claims include:

• Scripture is Authoritative: "the scriptures state ..." (Matthew 4:7-10)
• Scripture is Everlasting/Eternal: "my words will never disappear" (Matthew 24:35, Matthew 5:17)
• Scripture is Unchangeable/Immutable: "the Scriptures cannot be altered" (John 10:35)
• Scripture is True/Inerrant: "teach them your word, which is truth" (John 17:17)
• Scripture is Supreme: "why do your traditions violate the direct commandments of God?" (Matthew 15:3)
• Scripture is Prophetically Accurate: "the Scriptures declared long ago" (Matthew 26:24-56), "the prophetic words of the Scriptures will be fulfilled" (Luke 21:22) "Scripture has been fulfilled this very day!" (Luke 4:21)
  

These characteristics set scripture apart from all other sacred writings. No other collection of writings spanning 1,500 years has this degree of consistency. Therefore, the universal truths presented in scripture must transcend its individual writers, and originate from a single author, God himself.

Because Jesus is God [PHY-DS06], he is able to claim with authority that the scriptures are divinely inspired.

Evidence 3.2.3: Biblical Meta-Narrative (BIB-EV77)

Summary: https://open.spotify.com/episode/21qF83bwGam2PKDdmgm9iy The meta-narrative of the Bible is singular in meaning and purpose, even though the 66 books of the Bible were written by approximately 40 men of diverse backgrounds over the span of 1,500 years. This strongly suggests one author, God himself.

A meta-narrative is an overarching theme or storyline that gives context and meaning to all smaller themes and individual stories [REF-MET01]. Generally, meta-narratives can be summarized in just a few sentences.

In the case of the Bible, the meta-narrative is the main theme and storyline that spans all 66 books from Genesis to Revelation. It provides a big picture that ties the individual books and stories together into a single story. The individual books and stories support and reinforce the meta-narrative of the Bible.

Biblical Meta-Narrative

The following is a summary of the biblical narrative:

• Main Character: God:
  God is the main character of the Bible. The words "Lord" and "God" appear in the Bible with the most frequency. They are direct references and allusions to God throughout the Bible.
• Main Theme: God's Pursuit of Man:
  God loves man so much that he pursues him despite his alienation from God. God provides a plan to redeem man and restores him to a vital relationship with God.
• Main Storyline: God-Man-Sin-Jesus:
  In a nutshell, the main storyline of the Bible is God-Man-Sin-Jesus: God created man so that man could enjoy God and live in relationship with Him forever. Man chose to disobey and reject God, thus severing his relationship with God. God sent Jesus to atone for mans' sin and restore mans' relationship with God. This storyline is the essence of the Gospel Message.

This meta-narrative progressively unfolds from the Old Testament to the New Testament. It culminates in the person of Jesus, God's ultimate expression of himself (John 10:22-30).

During the course of the Old Testament the meta-narrative is presented as a foreshadow of the redemptive work of Jesus. The exodus of the Jewish nation from Egyptian slavery (Exodus 1-40) and the ritual of atonement (Leviticus 4:1-5:13), are foreshadows of Jesus' salvific work of atonement. Even the symbolism used in the Book of Revelation (Revelation 5:5-6) reflects on the finished work of Jesus where the Lion represents a messianic figure, the Lamb represents the sin sacrifice and the Ram represents the one who conquers death.

The following observations can be made from the Biblical meta-narrative.

• The Biblical meta-narrative is remarkably consistent throughout the 66 books. Every story in the Bible supports this single meta-narrative without exception. The story of Jesus life and ministry represents the culmination of the meta-narrative. This unfolding of the meta-narrative parallels the progressive revelation of God from the earliest book of the Old Testament to the New Testament. Therefore, the Biblical meta-narrative is the expression of one author, God himself.
• Even though the 66 books of the Bible were written by approximately 40 men of diverse backgrounds over the course of 1,500 years, the Biblical meta-narrative is singular and invariant. The only way this could be accomplished is that there must have been one author, God himself. This voice of God is demonstrated by the prepositional phases in Exodus 3 NLT, "God called to Moses", "The Lord told Moses", "God answered Moses" and "God said to Moses". This pattern of God speaking to his prophets is replete throughout the entire Old Testament from one prophet to the next.

Prophetic Accuracy

According to John Walvoord, there are approximately 650 unique prophecies recorded in the Old Testament and 530 unique prophecies recorded in the New Testament [REF-JFW01]. Other scholars have enumerated similar numbers of prophecies [REF-EWH01] [REF-JBP01]. These prophecies support the Biblical meta-narrative. They predict the consequences of man's failure and the redemptive work of the coming Messiah.

Scholars who have studied Biblical prophecy have concluded that those prophecies already fulfilled have been fulfilled with pin-point accuracy. What is remarkable is that the interval between prophecy prediction and prophecy fulfillment often spans hundreds and in some cases thousands of years.

One must conclude that only God would be capable of accurately predicting these events and ensuring their fulfillment. At best, man's predictions would be random or 50-50. Again, this demonstrates one author, God.

This singular meta-narrative presented in the Bible strongly suggests one author, God himself.

Resources:

• Christology of the Old Testament (REF-EWH01)

• Encyclopedia of Biblical Prophecy (REF-JBP01)

• The Prophecy Knowledge Handbook (REF-JFW01)

• What is a Metanarrative? (REF-MET01)

3.2.4 Claim: Inspiration of God's Revealed Word (BIB-IS11)

Christians claim that the Bible is set apart from all other sacred texts as being inspired by God. How can we know if the Bible writers were truly inspired by God? What evidence is there to support this claim?

God not only wants to reveal himself to everyone through His created world [BIB-IS10], he also wants to make himself known in human words. Another way to understand God's revelation is that God himself inspired the writers of the Bible. Essentially, the Spirit of God moved men to write God-breathed words.

In the process of inspiration, God does not just act, and humans respond with their own insight and judgment. Rather, God is working by the Holy Spirit to superintend (oversee, watch, direct). When we use the word inspiration in theology, we carefully define it. It is the process of God speaking, and humans receiving and writing down what he said. God wants to speak to us in human words that we can understand. Both the writings and writers were inspired.

The primary elements of inspiration as defined by Geisler and Nix [REF-GEI03] include: God's causality, prophetic agency, and divine authority. God initiates the process of inspiration by speaking to and through men of God. He communicates to men through the use of human senses (audibly, visually) and through a process of illumination and enablement. He makes his truth known and then employs the writer's individual personalities to convey his message by guiding the writer's thoughts and choice of words. The resulting text carries the full weight and authority of God himself because God is the originator and conveyor of the message.

This process of inspiration is affirmed by the following evidence:

• Writers Affirm the Inspiration of Scripture:
  The writers of scripture claimed to be inspired by God [BIB-EV94]. Paul states that all scripture is breathed by God's Spirit, and Peter states that the writers of scripture were carried along by God's Spirit. It is clear from these testimonies that God's Spirit illuminated and guided each writer to accurately convey God's original message.
• Jesus Affirms the Inspiration of Scripture:
  Throughout Jesus ministry he declares the scriptures to be authoritative, eternal, immutable, inerrant, supreme and prophetically accurate [BIB-EV95]. Because Jesus is God [PHY-DS06], he is able to claim with authority that the scriptures are divinely inspired.
• Biblical Meta-Narrative Demonstrates the Inspiration of Scripture:
  The overarching storyline of the Bible is remarkably singular and invariant even though it's composed of 66 books and written by 40 men over the course of 1,500 years [BIB-EV77].
• Accurate Fulfillment of Prophecy Demonstrates the Inspiration of Scripture:
  Many of the 1,000+ prophecies have been fulfilled in the New Testament at the first coming of Jesus. Since the period of time between prophecy prediction and prophecy fulfillment spanned hundreds and even thousands of years, one must conclude that only God would be capable of predicting these events with pin-point accuracy. Therefore, God must have inspired biblical prophecy.

We conclude that God inspired the writing of scripture, not man. The continuity of scripture and prophetic accuracy demands one author, God himself.

Resources:

• From God to Us (REF-GEI03)

Claim 3.3: Reliable Transmission of the Old Testament (BIB-IS13)

Summary: https://open.spotify.com/episode/0zh7lSwSIKGVQvE70ZYU8Y The veracity of the Old Testament is found in the skillful and meticulous care of the Scribes, Masoretes and Essenes, verified by the Dead Sea Scrolls. The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls provided scholars with Old Testament texts that predated 69 AD, the date the scrolls were hidden.

This claim is supported by the following evidence.

Evidence 3.3.1: Old Testament Books Meticulously Copied (BIB-EV06)

Summary: https://open.spotify.com/episode/738iyIH3RvF839g7OL7161 The Masoretic scribes were entrusted by the nation of Israel with copying the ancient Old Testament texts. They approached their duties with the utmost of reverence and care. The methodologies they used contained the necessary checks and balances to ensure that the copies they produced were of high fidelity.

Masoretic scribes were Jewish scholars who worked on the Old Testament text from 600-1000 AD [REF-GEI03]. They are credited for their production of what is known as the Masoretic Text [REF-MTX01] [REF-MTX02].

The creation of the Masoretic Text was an attempt to correct the textual errors of the Old Testament that were introduced during the Babylonian captivity. Their goal was to restore the Old Testament text to its original autographic state and introduce safeguards in the copying process to preserve these texts.

According to Sir Frederic Kenyon (1863-1952),

"Besides recording varieties of reading, tradition, or conjecture, the Masoretes undertook a number of calculations that do not enter into the ordinary sphere of textual criticism. They numbered the verses, words, and letters of every book. They calculated the middle word and the middle letter of each. They enumerated verses that contained all the letters of the alphabet, or a certain number of them; and so on. These trivialities, as we may rightly consider them, had the effect of securing minute attention to the precise transmission of the text; and they are but an excessive manifestation of a respect for the sacred Scriptures, which in itself deserves nothing but praise. The Masoretes were indeed anxious that no one jot nor tittle, not one smallest letter nor one tiny part of a letter, of the Law should pass away or be lost."
(Sir Frederic G. Kenyon, Paleographer and Former Director of the British Museum) [REF-FGK01] [REF-FGK02]

The Masoretes were not just interested in copying the Old Testament but were preoccupied with the nature of the text itself. They went beyond their duties by

• numbering the verses, words, and letters of every book,
• counting the number of letters, words and verses in each book,
• determining the middle word and letter of every book of the Old Testament,
• enumerating verses, which contained all the letters of the alphabet, or a certain number, and
• other grammatic trivialities.

The Masoretes were so exacting that if a mistake was found on a page - even one letter - the page was burned and recopied correctly.

The Masoretes had a great reverence for the scriptures they copied. In preparation for copying the Old Testament texts, they purified themselves through the Jewish cleansing ritual. This was to prepare them for the handling of sacred texts.

The Masoretes were entrusted with the transmission of Old Testament texts by the nation of Israel. Therefore, they were meticulous in their stewardship of these ancient texts. They regarded their duties as a high calling from God.

Resources:

• Cold-Case Christianity (REF-JWW01)

• From God to Us (REF-GEI03)

• Masoretic Text (REF-MTX01)

• Our Bible and The Ancient Manuscripts: Being A History of The Text and Its Translations (REF-FGK01)

• Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts (REF-FGK02)

• What is the Masoretic Text? (REF-MTX02)

Evidence 3.3.2: Discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls (HIS-EV49)

Summary: https://open.spotify.com/episode/0Aa8pAJfxrTaXg7fA5ARxR The Dead Sea Scrolls demonstrate the transmission accuracy of the Old Testament. Prior to the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the oldest Masoretic copy of the Old Testament was from about 1000 AD. Now, with the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the earliest manuscript predated 69 AD, the date the scrolls were hidden.

Why are the Dead Sea Scrolls so important?

The Dead Sea Scrolls are powerful evidence of how accurately the Bible was transmitted. The Dead Sea scrolls demonstrate the accuracy of Old Testament copies between 69 AD and 980 AD. They demonstrate the accuracy of the scribes who copied the Old Testament before the time of Christ. Prior to the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, the oldest copy of the Old Testament was from about 1000 AD. But that changed in 1947.

In 1947, a Bedouin shepherd boy tending his flock in Qumran, near the Dead Sea, left his sheep and goats to search for a stray. Tucked into the cliffs, he spotted a cave and he picked up a stone and tossed it in the interior. The stone shattered something, so he went inside and found large clay jars, many of which were still intact, their lids still in place. While most of the jars were empty, some contained seven scrolls wrapped in linen that had turned black over the centuries. The seven scrolls, initially thought to be of no value, turned out to be the Dead Sea Scrolls that contained biblical texts.

This was truly an amazing discovery. Every book of the Old Testament was represented (except Esther), and many non-biblical writings as well. The scribes who copied these manuscripts had been alive when Jesus was alive, and these pieces of paper and parchment were as old as Jesus!

The manuscripts were hidden in caves in 69 AD when the Romans were about to attack Jerusalem and lay undisturbed for almost two thousand years. Suddenly, we could compare our Bibles to Old Testament texts that were not 1000 years old—but 2,000 years old!

Let us take Isaiah as an example of a biblical writer: back around 700 BC, Isaiah wrote his prophecy. (The book of Isaiah discovered near the Dead Sea was dated approximately 100 BC. [REF-DDS02]) About 800 years later, Jesus is crucified. Then, around 1000 AD, the oldest manuscript containing the Old Testament is copied by the Masoretes; that is the oldest piece of paper with Old Testament writing on it in existence. In modern times, people had their Bibles, based on the Masoretic text that is 1,000 years old - but that is still 1,700 years after Isaiah wrote it.

The obvious question was, "How much had the text changed since Jesus’ day? We could have never known the answer before the Dead Sea Scrolls were found, but now we can know! When those copies from the time of Jesus were compared to the copies from 1000 AD, there were no significant alterations – after 1,000 years of hand-copying the text! The Dead Sea Scrolls confirm the accuracy of the transmission of the Old Testament. The Dead Sea Scrolls dated from around the time of Christ yet were virtually identical to manuscripts to those 1,000 years later.

Resources:

• Dead Sea Scrolls (REF-DSS01)

• From God to Us (REF-GEI03)

• RADIOCARBON DATING OF FOURTEEN DEAD SEA SCROLLS (REF-DDS02)

Evidence 3.3.3: Greek Septuagint (BIB-EV92)

Summary: https://open.spotify.com/episode/3FUgoLVIgq4m9xzDhSDw1T The Greek Septuagint is the earliest extant Greek translation of the Old Testament texts written in Hebrew. The oldest manuscripts of the Septuagint are contained in the Codex Vaticanus from the 4th century AD. Scholars are in general agreement that the Septuagint provides a reasonably accurate record of the Masoretic text and the Dead Sea Scrolls.

The Greek Septuagint is the earliest extant Greek translation of the Old Testament texts written in Hebrew [REF-SEP01] [REF-SEP02] [REF-SEP03]. The king of Egypt, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, asked seventy-two Jewish scholars to translate the Hebrew Old Testament into Greek for inclusion into the Library of Alexandria. Greek was spoken by Egyptians. Thus, the name Septuaginta.

The first five books of the Old Testament, also known as the Torah or Pentateuch, were translated from Hebrew to Greek in the 3^rd century BC. The remaining books of the Old Testament were translated in the 2^nd century BC.

The oldest manuscripts of the Septuagint include fragments of Leviticus and Deuteronomy (Rahlfs nos. 801, 819, and 957), and fragments of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, and the Minor Prophets (Alfred Rahlfs nos. 802, 803, 805, 848, 942, and 943). Relatively complete manuscripts of the Septuagint are included in the Codex Vaticanus from the 4th century (340 AD) and the Codex Alexandrinus of the 5th century (450 AD).

A comparison of the Septuagint and the Masoretic Text is subject to the semantic nuances of translation from Hebrew to Greek [REF-SEP01]. Scholars are in general agreement that the Septuagint provides a reasonably accurate record of the Masoretic Text.

Resources:

• Septuagint (REF-SEP01)

• Septuagint (REF-SEP02)

• The Septuagint Bible (LXX): The Greek Translation of the Hebrew Scriptures (REF-SEP03)

3.3.4 Claim: Reliable Transmission of the Old Testament (BIB-IS13)

The Old Testament was written from 1400-400 BC. It was written in Hebrew and Aramaic and passed down from generation to generation of Jewish people, who from the time of their writing, accepted them as the authentic and inspired Word of God.

During the time of the Old Testament, the responsibility of copying the texts of the Old Testament was given to scribes. The Jewish scribes knew they were not handling just any set of writings. They approached their work with the diligence and passion of an important calling.

There were rules for copying the texts of Scripture and they knew they were handling the words of God himself as they were copying. The work of the scribes and the Masoretes who succeeded them ensured that the Old Testament texts were preserved to perfection. The Jewish scribes and Masoretes were some of the best educated and highest paid people. They continued their work until the time of Jesus and continued even after the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD until around 1000 AD.

The veracity of the Old Testament is found in the skillful and meticulous care of the Scribes, Masoretes and Essenes, verified by the Dead Sea Scrolls. The integrity of the Old Testament was established primarily by the fidelity of the transmission process.

The reliable transmission of the Old Testament is evidenced by the following facts:

• Jewish Scribe and Masoretic Methodologies were Unerring - The methodologies used by the scribes and Masoretes contained the necessary checks and balances to ensure that the Old Testament was copied accurately [BIB-EV06]. They were reverent and careful in their duties. Those who worked with the text had a sense of its divine origin and treated it with the utmost respect.
• Dead Sea Scrolls Demonstrate Proficiency of the Scribes' Methodology - The Dead Sea Scrolls are powerful evidence of how accurately the Bible was transmitted. The Dead Sea Scrolls were hidden in caves in 69 AD and written sometime earlier (e.g. Book of Isaiah). This predates the oldest Masoretic copy of the Old Testament written in 1000 AD by a thousand or more years! This demonstrates the proficiency of the scribes' methodology [HIS-EV49].
• Greek Septuagint Demonstrates Proficiency of Scribes' Methodology - Scholars are in general agreement that the Septuagint provides a reasonably accurate record of the Masoretic text accounting for the semantic nuances of translation from Hebrew to Greek [BIB-EV92].

When the Masoretic copies of the Old Testament are compared with the Dead Sea Scrolls, scholars found that the 5% variations in text are due primarily to orthographic errors such as minor misspellings, punctuation, missing articles and minor word transpositions. These errors were likely introduced prior to the production of the Masoretic Text of 600 AD.

According to Old Testament scholar Gleason Archer,

"Even though the two copies of Isaiah discovered in Qumran Cave 1 near the Dead Sea in 1947 were a thousand years earlier than the oldest dated manuscript previously known (980 AD), they proved to be word-for-word identical with our standard Hebrew Bible in more than 95 percent of the text. The 5 percent variation consisted chiefly of obvious slips of the pen and variations in spelling." [REF-GLA01]

And, according to Chuck Missler and Mark Eastman,

"The Qumran Biblical documents cover the whole Hebrew Bible with the exception of the book of Esther, and are about one thousand years older than the most ancient codices previously extant. With this newly discovered material at their disposal, experts concerned with the study of the text and transmission of the scriptures are now able to achieve far greater accuracy in their deductions and can trace the process by which the text of the Bible obtained its final shape. Moreover, they are in position to prove that it has remained virtually unchanged for the last two thousand years." [REF-CME01]

The timeline of Old Testament autographs and manuscripts is depicted below. This timeline compares the periods for which the Jewish scribes and Masoretes copied Old Testament texts.

Click on Image to Enlarge
Old Testament Manuscript Timeline

This timeline also depicts in ORANGE the comparison of the oldest extant Masoretic Text (1000 AD) with the text of the Dead Sea Scrolls (69 AD), and the Masoretic Text with the oldest extant Septuagint (400 AD).

Because of the proficiency of both the Jewish methodologies (69-600 AD) and the Masoretic methodologies (600-1000 AD), we assume that the same proficiencies were used by earlier Jewish scribes from the time of the original autographs (1400-400 BC) until the time of the Dead Sea Scrolls (69 AD). Therefore, we can safely assume the Essene Scrolls of 69 AD are accurate with respect to the autographs dating back to 1400 BC.

Resources:

• Bible Query from NT Manuscripts (REF-QRY01)

• Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties (REF-GLA01)

• New Testament Manuscripts (REF-RFS01)

• The Bible: An Extraterrestrial Message (REF-CME01)

Claim 3.4: Reliable Transmission of the New Testament (BIB-IS12)

Summary: https://open.spotify.com/episode/18ymUzn2WpXYNpUicaBEus The veracity of the New Testament is established on the vast number of ancient manuscripts, the early dating of those manuscripts, and the low percentage of variations among those manuscripts. Through a systematic and exhaustive process known as biblical criticism, 99.8% of the lines of the original autographs were reconstructed.

This claim is supported by the following evidence.

Evidence 3.4.1: Rigors of Biblical Criticism (BIB-EV02)

Summary: https://open.spotify.com/episode/4Qk4azi1ctksXUZGjYItC0 It is a well-established fact that the New Testament has been rigorously scrutinized by hundreds of biblical scholars throughout the ages. Methodologies known as criticisms have been applied to reconstruct the original autographs of the New Testament. In recent centuries, historical and textual criticisms have formed the foundation of all biblical literary inquiries. Application of these methodologies produced high-fidelity reproductions of the original autographs.

With 24,000 New Testament manuscripts, how can anyone accurately recover the text of the original autographs?

Readers of the New Testament can be assured that the original texts have been recovered with pinpoint accuracy. This is because hundreds of biblical scholars have applied methodologies known as criticisms to these ancient manuscripts to authenticate and accurately reconstruct the precise words of the original authors.

Today, biblical scholars largely use historical and textual criticisms to authenticate and reconstruct biblical texts.

Types of Biblical Criticism

New Testament manuscripts are examined using all forms of biblical criticism [REF-CRT01]. The major types of biblical criticism are:

• Historical Criticism seeks to interpret biblical writings in the context of their historical settings [REF-CRT09].
• Textual (Exegetical) Criticism is concerned with establishing the original or most authoritative text [REF-CRT03].
• Philological Criticism is the study of the biblical languages for an accurate knowledge of vocabulary, grammar, and style of the period [REF-CRT04].
• Literary Criticism focuses on the various literary genres embedded in the text in order to uncover evidence concerning date of composition, authorship, and original function of the various types of writing that constitute the Bible [REF-CRT05].
• Tradition Criticism attempts to trace the development of the oral traditions that preceded written texts [REF-CRT06].
• Form Criticism classifies the written material according to the preliterary forms, such as parable or hymn [REF-CRT07].
• Redaction Criticism studies how the documents were assembled by their final authors and editors [REF-CRT08].

For a more detailed description of each type of biblical criticism consult Encyclopedia Britannica [REF-CRT02].

Application of Historical Criticism

Historical criticism was first developed during the 18^th century by German theologians Heinrich Paulus, Rudolf Bultmann and others.

Historical criticism, also known as higher criticism, has to do with the determination of a text's genuineness. This type of biblical criticism is concerned with the nature of the manuscript as a whole. This includes the date of the manuscript, its literary style, its structure, its historicity and ultimately authorship [REF-GEI03].

Manuscript dating is performed using two approaches, paleography and mass spectrometer radiocarbon dating. Together these approaches are used to accurately date biblical texts.

Paleographers assist biblical critics with precisely dating papyri by examining handwriting and comparing manuscripts to other manuscripts of a known date. Fortunately, biblical critics and paleographers have a large number of ancient manuscripts at their disposal, many of which have been found within the last century.

Application of Textual Criticism

Textual criticism was first developed during the 18^th and 19^th centuries by both German and English theologians. Textual criticism fast became the foundation among scholars of all biblical literary inquiries ever since.

Textual criticism, also known as lower criticism, has to do with the evaluation of a text in an effort to reconstruct the autograph [REF-GRE01]. This type of biblical criticism is concerned with the content of the text itself. This includes the wording, grammatical form, syntax, spelling, punctuation, etc. The historicity of the text is also authenticated during the process of Textual Criticism.

Textual critics study variations across all manuscripts to decide whether the differences represent unintentional orthographic errors (e.g. misspellings, words inadvertently omitted, punctuation errors, minor word transpositions) or intentional changes involving grammar smoothing or various word/phrase changes. From the variations of manuscripts, a reconstruction of the original autograph is produced.

Conclusion

It is a well-established fact that the New Testament has been rigorously scrutinized by hundreds of biblical scholars throughout the ages. Their formal training and meticulous attention to detail has ensured that the New Testament texts we revere today are an accurate reconstruction of the original autographs.

Resources:

• A Ready Defense - Best of Josh McDowell (REF-JMD01)

• Bible Query from NT Manuscripts (REF-QRY01)

• Biblical criticism (REF-CRT01)

• Form Criticism (REF-CRT07)

• From God to Us (REF-GEI03)

• Historical Criticism (REF-CRT09)

• Introduction to New Testament Textual Criticism (REF-GRE01)

• Literary Criticism (REF-CRT05)

• New Testament Manuscripts (REF-RFS01)

• Philological Criticism (REF-CRT04)

• Reasonable Faith - Christian Truth and Apologetics (REF-WLC03)

• Redaction Criticism (REF-CRT08)

• Textual Criticism (REF-CRT03)

• The Critical Study of Biblical Literature: Exegesis and Hermeneutics (REF-CRT02)

• Tradition Criticism (REF-CRT06)

Evidence 3.4.2: Autograph Reconstruction from 24,000 Manuscripts (BIB-EV78)

Summary: https://open.spotify.com/episode/0pwm9yPY8TjJCqIJ0J4OUE The New Testament autographs are reconstructed from approximately 24,000 early copies or fragments written during the first few centuries. Textual criticism is applied to reconcile 138,000 word/phrase variants. After the variants have been classified as unintentional orthographic errors and intentional changes, only 40 lines of the 20,000 lines that comprise the New Testament are in question. This results in an accuracy of 99.8%. Compared with Homer's Iliad, the next most-copied book, the New Testament is 25 times more accurate.

With approximately 24,000 copies or fragments of the New Testament, it would seem an insurmountable task to reconstruct an accurate reproduction of the original autographs. Thankfully, through the systematic use of biblical criticism, most notably historical and textual criticisms, this reconstruction effort is tractable. For a complete list of the earliest New Testament manuscripts, refer to [REF-QRY01] and [REF-NTM01].

Autograph Reconstruction using Textual Criticism

To reconstruct an ancient text accurately, scholars need lots of copies, and early copies. This has been developed into a science, called textual criticism [BIB-EV02]. The key is to keep going back to the earliest known copies.

The oldest fragment of the New Testament is a tiny piece of the gospel of John, dating from around 125 AD, copied just three decades after John’s original composition. It is called the John Ryland’s papyrus P₅₂. Other ancient portions of the New Testament include the Bodmer papyri P₆₆ (200 AD) and the Chester Beatty papyri (250 AD). The oldest complete (or nearly complete) copies of the New Testament are the Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus, both from around 340 AD and 400 AD, respectively.

In fact, the dates of some of the earliest New Testament fragments are within 25 years of the autographs. [REF-NTM01], [REF-DBW01] This places some manuscripts within the lifetime of those who may have eye witnessed the actual events being written about.

Table 1: New Testament Manuscripts

The manuscripts of the New Testament consisted of fragments or books. Fragments are dated between 15 to 50 years after the autographs. Complete books of the New Testament are dated less than 100 years after the autographs.

Moreover, the early church fathers of the 2^nd century quoted the New Testament so extensively and often that apparently all but eleven New Testament verses are found in quoted writings. In other words, one could put together the entire New Testament just from the quotations from the early church fathers [REF-GEI04].

Reconciling Textual Variations

A summary of all New Testament variants is presented in Table 2 [REF-QRY01].

Table 2: New Testament Variants by Book

Textual critics studied the variations within the manuscripts to decide whether those differences represent unintentional orthographic errors (e.g. misspellings, words inadvertently omitted, punctuation errors, minor word transpositions) or intentional changes involving grammar smoothing or various word/phrase changes. The latter category of intentional changes is only found in 38 places with 10 or more word changes [REF-QRY01]. All remaining variants are unintentional orthographic errors.

According to Geisler and Nix,

"Once the counting procedure is understood, and the orthographic variants have been eliminated, the remaining significant variants are surprisingly few in number. In fact, most of the variants found in the early Christian manuscripts have nothing to do with theology or ideology. Far and away most variants are a result of mistakes pure and simple - slips of the pen, accidental omissions, inadvertent additions, misspelled words, blunders of one sort or another." [REF-GEI03]

The New Testament is estimated as being 99.8% accurate. This is based on the fact that only 40 lines (400 words) are in question of the 20,000 lines that comprise the New Testament. Therefore, only an estimated 0.2% of the lines - 40 divided by 20,000 lines - are in question [REF-GEI03].

Comparison with Homer's Iliad

So, how does the New Testament compare with Homer's Iliad?

Homer’s Iliad is the next most-copied book of the ancient world. It has almost the same number of lines of text as the New Testament. It has more extant manuscripts than any other book besides the New Testament. It was considered sacred, was written in Greek, and underwent textual changes and criticism much like the New Testament manuscripts.

Table 3: Comparison of New Testament and Homer's Iliad

By comparison, Homer's Iliad only has 600 copies or fragments. The number of New Testament copies and fragments is astounding—nearly 4000% more than Homer's Iliad!

In terms of accuracy, Homer's Iliad has 764 lines in question of a total of 15,600 lines [REF-GEI03]. This is equivalent to a 4.9% error or 95.1% accuracy. Therefore, the New Testament is 25 times more accurate than Homer's Iliad!

Resources:

• A General Introduction to the Bible, Revised and Expanded (REF-GEI04)

• Bible Query from NT Manuscripts (REF-QRY01)

• Center for the Study of New Testament Manuscripts (REF-NTM01)

• Daniel B. Wallace - Paleographer (REF-DBW01)

• From God to Us (REF-GEI03)

• New Testament Manuscripts (REF-RFS01)

3.4.3 Claim: Reliable Transmission of the New Testament (BIB-IS12)

Scholars use the term autographs to describe original manuscripts of a work of literature - and the books of the Bible. We do not have any autographs - any original manuscript - of any book of the Bible. That may seem like a problem because if we do not have the originals, how can we be sure the copies have not been changed?

For comparison, we do not have any autograph of any work from antiquity. So, the Bible is no different from any other religious text or work from antiquity - they all come to us from copies, not originals. The problem of transmission is an issue for any information that comes to us from antiquity, secular or religious.

There are approximately 24,000 early copies or fragments of the New Testament from within the first few centuries after it was written! No other literature or work of history from the ancient world has as many copies– or as early copies – as the New Testament.

The veracity of the New Testament is established on the vast number of ancient manuscripts, the early dating of those manuscripts, and the low percentage of variations among those manuscripts. The fidelity of the New Testament can be seen in the many copies in existence, church father citations and low percentage of variants.

According to Ravi Zacharias,

"In real terms, the New Testament is easily the best attested ancient writing in terms of the sheer number of documents, the time span between the events and the document, and the variety of documents available to sustain or contradict it. There is nothing in ancient manuscript evidence to match such textual availability and integrity." [REF-ZAC01]

This claim is evidenced by the following facts:

• Rigorous Methods Produce High-Fidelity Results - The process by which the approximate 24,000 copies and fragments were examined was systematic and exhaustive. Numerous methodologies have been developed and refined over the past 400 years [BIB-EV02]. These methodologies, together with technology advances such as computers, carbon dating and others, have enabled biblical scholars to systematically and accurately reproduce the original autographs.
• Nearly all of the 20,000 Lines of the New Testament have been Reconstructed - Only 40 lines or 0.2% of the lines of the New Testament are in question. All remaining 19,960 lines have been accurately reconstructed [BIB-EV78].

These facts clearly demonstrate that the New Testament we have available today is a trustworthy reproduction of the original autographs. We can be assured that the words we read are the very words written by the original authors two thousand years ago.

Resources:

• Can Man Live Without God? (REF-ZAC01)

Claim 3.5: Books of the Bible Carefully Authenticated by Church Councils (BIB-IS08)

Summary: https://open.spotify.com/episode/56a7MTYe78dpLzLssJRNF0 The 66 books of the Bible were carefully recognized as inspired by God and authorized by God's people for use in Jewish and Christian communities. A strict set of criteria was used to qualify each book as inspired.

This claim is supported by the following evidence.

Evidence 3.5.1: 39 Old Testament Books Pass Tests of Canonicity (BIB-EV05)

Summary: https://open.spotify.com/episode/0n1GrMerMq7b6PfXH9LeX7 The canonization of the Old Testament is referred to as a growing collection of books written by prophets of God. These books were handed down to the nation of Israel by a succession of prophets from Moses to Malachi spanning some 1,600 years from 1500-400 BC. Various criteria are used to confirm the inspiration and authority of the 39 books of the Old Testament canon.

The Old Testament is comprised largely of the books of the Law and the Prophets. The books of the Law, the Pentateuch, were written by the prophet Moses. The remaining books were written by a succession of nineteen prophets after Moses. Books of Moses were cited from the time of the prophet Joshua (1500 BC) to the prophet Malachi (400 BC).

Confirmation of Canonicity

• Dead Sea Scrolls: The Dead Sea Scrolls contain at least a fragment of all the books of the Old Testament except Esther (38 of 39 books). Because virtually all the Old Testament books were represented there, it supports the idea of their special status. Some biblical books also have scribal "commentaries," further indicating how much they were valued. Several non-biblical books were discovered among the biblical fragments in the Dead Sea Scrolls; but the special status of the biblical texts is not lost by that fact, any more than a bookstore selling books other than the Bible means we don’t believe in the uniqueness of the Bible.
• Prologue to Ecclesiasticus: A prologue was inserted into the apocryphal book of Ecclesiasticus about 130 (this is not the same as the Old Testament book of Ecclesiastes). The phrase occurs several times: "The Law, the Prophets, and the Writings." Ecclesiasticus was not Scripture, but the prologue recognizes there is a body of writings that is Scripture, with a three-fold division. This same division of sacred text was used by Jesus in Luke 24:44. The point here is that there was a body of material recognized by Jews and Jesus as having special divinely inspired status; it consisted of these main divisions, and these divisions describe the equivalent of our Old Testament today (no more, no less). "He said to them, "This is what I told you while I was still with you: Everything must be fulfilled that is written about me in the Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms." (Luke 24:44)
• Philo and Josephus: Early Jewish writers like Philo (40 AD) and Josephus (90 AD) also witness to the three-fold division of the Law, Prophets, and Writings. Josephus accords these writings special divinely inspired status in his book Against Apion, 1:8.

  "We have not myriads of books, disagreeing and conflicting with one another (like the pagan Greeks have), but only twenty-two (Josephus merged some books to get 22, but we know from elsewhere that these are the 39 we are familiar with) containing the record of all time and justly accredited. Of these, five are the books of Moses, containing the laws and the history handed down from the creation of the human race right to his own death; From the death of Moses to the time of Artaxerxes, who was king of Persia after Xerxes, the prophets who followed Moses have written down in thirteen books the things that were done in their days. The remaining four books contain hymns to God and principles of life for human beings. From Artaxerxes to our own time a detailed record has been made (the Apocrypha), but this has not been thought worthy of equal credit with the earlier records because there has not been since then the exact succession of prophets. How firmly we have given credit to these books of our own nation is evident by what we do; for during all the ages, no one has been so bold as either to add anything to them, to take anything from them, or to make any change in them. It is natural for all Jews immediately from their very birth, to esteem these books to contain Divine doctrines, and to persist in them, and, if occasion arises, to be willing to die for them.
  Josephus, Against Apion, 1:8 (written about 97 AD)

Establishment for Canonicity

The Old Testament canon consisting of the 39 books of the Law and the Prophets was settled and acknowledged over time. As the books were handed down from the prophets, they were accepted by the Jewish rabbis and community at large. According to Geisler and Nix [REF-GEI03]:

"The canonicity of some (34 of 39 books) was never seriously challenged by any of the great rabbis within the Jewish community. Once these books were accepted by God's people as being from the hand of the prophet of God, they continued to be recognized as divinely authoritative by subsequent generations."

The Jewish nation accepted the Old Testament canon as closed after the prophet Malachi (400 BC). God was not speaking through any prophet from 400 BC until the time of Christ.

The 5 books that were not originally accepted by the Jewish rabbis were the wisdom books consisting of the Song of Solomon, Ecclesiastes and Proverbs, and the books of Esther and Ezekiel. These books were later accepted into the Old Testament canon as their divine authority was vindicated [REF-GEI03].

Resources:

• From God to Us (REF-GEI03)

Evidence 3.5.2: 27 New Testament Books Pass Tests of Canonicity (BIB-EV03)

Summary: https://open.spotify.com/episode/6hVysxSTUmPtEEX6g3YYKM The primary tests for canonicity of the New Testament books were apostolic origin, doctrinal soundness and wide acceptance by the church. In many cases, the original autographs were handed down from the apostles to their apprentices in the faith, the early Apostolic fathers. Twenty of the 27 books of the New Testament were accepted by the Apostolic Fathers as early as the first half of the second century. The remaining 7 books were later accepted into the canon at the beginning of the fourth century.

In the first few centuries, there were many false books and writings claiming to have divine authority and wanting to be considered scripture. These writings of suspicious authorship are referenced to as the pseudepigrapha. There was not much debate about the canon in the first hundred years after Jesus’ resurrection.

It was when a heretic named Marcion came along in the second century (140 AD) and rejected the Hebrew Bible, rejected the God of the Old Testament and propagated the teaching that there was only one God, the God of the New Testament. He rejected anything Jewish, rejected any New Testament book that spoke about the Old Testament and anything Jewish. He saw the god of the Old Testament as mean and angry, a demi-god, a lower being than the true god. Marcion was denounced as a heretic.

Marcion and other heretical teachings forced the church fathers to carefully review their collection of authoritative writings. They needed to come up with some basic criteria to test these writings to see if they measured up to being divinely inspired by God.

Tests for Canonicity

There were three main tests for New Testament canonicity [REF-GEI01] [REF-WLC03]:

Test 1: Apostolic Origin

The first issue that kept coming up when Christian communities discussed what books were inspired, was, who wrote the book. All the Old Testament books were written by prophets, servants of God, starting with Moses and ending with Malachi around 400 BC. Then there was a period of 400 years when there were no prophets speaking for God. So, who were the new prophets? They included the apostles who knew Jesus when He was alive on earth, and others who came from the relational inner circle of an apostle and reflected clear apostolic teaching.

Luke was not an apostle but traveled extensively with Paul and interviewed eyewitnesses to Jesus’ ministry. His writings had an indirect "apostolic authority" because of his connection with Paul and his careful research of other apostolic teachings known elsewhere.

Mark also was not an apostle, but tradition says that he was Peter’s scribe. Mark’s work has "apostolic authority" because of that connection with Peter.

Additionally, Paul had a dramatic conversion where he met the resurrected Jesus and became one of the most prolific New Testament writers. Because of his missionary journeys, the Gospel was spread to much of the known world because of his preaching and teaching. The other apostles accepted his conversion experience as authentic.

Irenaeus refers to the apprenticeship of Mark and Luke under Peter and Paul, respectively.

"Matthew also issued a written Gospel among the Hebrews in their own dialect, while Peter and Paul were preaching at Rome, and laying the foundations of the Church. After their departure, Mark, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, did also hand down to us in writing what had been preached by Peter. Luke also, the companion of Paul, recorded in a book the Gospel preached by him. Afterwards, John, the disciple of the Lord, who also had leaned upon His breast, did himself publish a Gospel during his residence at Ephesus in Asia."

Irenaeus of Lyons; Against Heresies, Book III [REF-IRE01]

So, to be included in the New Testament canon, a book had to be written by an apostle or a person close to an apostle (an amanuensis, a traveling companion, someone who sat under an apostle’s teaching).

Test 2: Doctrinal Soundness

The content of the book must be consistent with (1) Jesus’ teaching, (2) other recognized Scriptures both New and Old Testaments and (3) apostolic teaching.

Any book with factual or doctrinal errors could not be inspired by God. God cannot lie, and His Word is true [BIB-IS14]. A book was not automatically considered inspired if it agreed with other apostolic teaching, but if it contradicted the Old Testament, it was rejected.

In their book, From God to Us, Geisler and Nix state:

"Much of the Apocrypha was rejected because of the principle of authenticity. Their historical anomalies and theological heresies made it impossible to accept them as from God despite their authoritative format. They could not be from God and contain error at the same time." [REF-GEI03]

Test 3: Wide Acceptance by the Church

The considerations for wide acceptance among church leaders are summarized as:

- Did the original people and leaders that the writings were given to recognize them as authoritative writings based on first century apostolic teaching?

- Did many leaders accept the writings, not just a few leaders?

- Were the writings widely used in many different regions of the church, not just one city?

- Did churches keep using them over a long period of time, or was its popularity short-lived?

The original books of the New Testament (autographs) were likely handed down from the apostles to their apprentices in the faith, the early church fathers. This unbroken chain of custody from apostles to Apostolic Fathers guaranteed the authenticity and authority of the autographs. For example, Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons, was a student of Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna who in turn was a student of the Apostle John.

Early church leaders quote extensively from the New Testament. This shows their recognition of its divine origin. If all the manuscripts from the first three centuries were destroyed, it would be possible to reconstruct virtually the entire New Testament just from their quotations of it. One scholar, Sir David Dalrymple, believed that by his count, only eleven verses of the New Testament were missing from their writings! God determined which books were authoritative, but the people of God used these tests to discover which books were inspired and which were not.

Establishment of Canonicity

Twenty of the 27 books of the New Testament were accepted by the Apostolic Fathers as early as the first half of the second century.

The 7 books that were not originally accepted (disputed) included Hebrews, James, 2 Peter, 2 John, 3 John, Jude and Revelation. These books were later accepted into the canon at the beginning of the fourth century after their authenticity and authority were settled by the Apostolic Fathers [REF-GEI03].

These early canons were lists of books or collections of books that were used. Included are the Muratorian Canon (170 AD), the Old Syriac Canon (200 AD), the Old Latin Canon (200 AD) and the Athanasius Easter Letter (367 AD).

All 27 books of the New Testament canon were fully settled and acknowledged by the Council of Carthage in 397 AD.

The Latin Vulgate (400 AD) was the first Bible that had all 66 books in one collection. The Latin Vulgate was the entire Bible translated into Vulgar Latin from Hebrew and Greek by the historian Jerome. Jerome was commissioned by Pope Damascus I in 382 AD.

Resources:

• From God to Us (REF-GEI03)

• I Don't Have Enough FAITH to Be an ATHEIST (REF-GEI01)

• Irenaeus of Lyons; Against Heresies, Book III (REF-IRE01)

• Reasonable Faith - Christian Truth and Apologetics (REF-WLC03)

3.5.3 Claim: Books of the Bible Carefully Authenticated by Church Councils (BIB-IS08)

The Canon is a collection of books recognized by the Church as authoritative. The 66 books of the Bible were recognized as authoritative, not made authoritative. This is an important distinction. Canonicity is determined by God and discovered by man.

The word canon means ruler or measuring rod. It is derived from a word that means cane or reed (Greek, kanon; Hebrew, qaneh). In the ancient world, cane was used as a measuring stick. When applied to the books of the Bible, it means that they measure up to the standard of being divinely inspired. The canon becomes the yardstick for measuring spiritual truth from all other sources. It is our standard for measuring truth.

The process by which the canon of the Bible was recognized is based on the following considerations [REF-GEI03].

• Recognized as Inspired by God: The books of the Bible were recognized for its inspiration, not selected. For example, when John the Baptist saw Jesus at his baptism, he declared, "Behold the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world" (John 1:29). John the Baptist did not make Jesus the Lamb of God, he merely acknowledged and recognized and bore witness to that fact. John just pointed out who he was. In the same way, no church or council "made" the canon or gave the books of the Bible their authority. They just acknowledged and gave witness to the authority the books intrinsically contained. They received it as God’s Holy Word, they did not create it. It is more accurate to speak of discovering the canon rather than determining the canon.
• Recognized by a Spokesperson of God: Prophets and apostles recognized the voice of God. They were divinely appointed and prompted by God to communicate God's message to his people. Moreover, they were divinely guided by God's Spirit to not only speak God's message but also write his message. This guidance involved illumination and choice of words to accurately convey what God wanted his people to hear/read for all time.
• Recognized by the People of God: The inspired books of the prophets and apostles were collected and preserved by the Jewish scribes and the Apostolic Fathers of the church. They were copied with great care and reverence. They were read in gatherings, and quickly became the focus of theological understanding within Jewish and Christian communities.

The Old Testament canon consisting of the 39 books of the Law and the Prophets was settled and acknowledged over time. As the books were handed down from the prophets, they were accepted by the Jewish rabbis and community at large. The Jewish nation accepted the Old Testament canon as closed after the prophet Malachi. God was not speaking through any prophet from 400 BC until the time of Christ.

Twenty of the 27 books of the New Testament were accepted by the Apostolic Fathers as early as the first half of the second century. All 27 books of the New Testament canon were fully settled and acknowledged by the Council of Carthage in 397 AD.

Resources:

• From God to Us (REF-GEI03)

• The Canon of Scripture (REF-FFB02)

Claim 3.6: God Reveals Truth (BIB-IS14)

Summary: https://open.spotify.com/episode/3jITnMb1dXxCY1Bw6PTXLo What God revealed is true. This is evidenced by creation, the prophets, the apostles, Jesus and the Holy Spirit. Further, for God's truth to be true, it must be transcendent, absolute, inerrant and infallible.

This claim is supported by the following evidence.

Evidence 3.6.1: Declarations of God's Truth (BIB-EV96)

Summary: https://open.spotify.com/episode/1mKKg51LWLxuWo0tK9I3Xp The truth of God's revelation is declared by creation, the prophets, the apostles, Jesus and the Holy Spirit. The apostles proclaim that Jesus is the incarnation of God's truth.

What evidence is there that God's revelation of himself is true? What or who testifies to the truth of God?

The Bible is replete with declarations of God's revealed truth. Over the span of 1,500 years, God's revelation of himself becomes more and more specific. With the incarnation of Jesus, God's revelation comes to a climax.

Creation Declares the Truth of God

According to the apostle Paul in his Epistle to the Romans, creation declares the truth of God.

"They know the truth about God because he has made it obvious to them. For ever since the world was created, people have seen the earth and sky. Through everything God made, they can clearly see his invisible qualities—his eternal power and divine nature. So, they have no excuse for not knowing God. (Romans 1:19-20 NLT)

Paul states that we can readily observe God's transcendent power and nature with the naked eye without the use of a telescope or microscope. God's revelation can be plainly observed and known by all.

Through the use of scientific methods, we also observe that the universe is governed by physical laws. These laws are constrained by physical constants which can be measured and validated [REF-NWE01]. These constants are true because they are invariant.

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274 AD) argued that God's truth is proclaimed through both nature and scripture, i.e. nature (science) and scripture (theology) are in complete harmony. He asserted that any discrepancy is due to a misunderstanding of either science or theology. Aquinas' thesis was that all truth comes from God.

"The epitome of rationality, argued Aquinas, is recognizing that science drives us conclusively and compellingly toward the existence of God." R.C. Sproul, Defending the Truth [REF-RCS04]

God's Prophets Declare the Truth of God

The prophets of the Old Testament proclaimed the truth of God throughout the ages. God spoke to them or made himself known to them through visions. From the Book of Genesis (1400 BC) to the Book of Malachi (400 BC), God's truth about himself and mankind remains consistent with the broader meta-narrative of the Bible [BIB-EV77].

The prophet Samuel declares

"For you are God, O Sovereign Lord. Your words are truth." (2 Samuel 7:28)

Often the prophets of God contrasted the truth of God with the falsehood of mankind, and the justice of God with the injustice of mankind. This contrast is best illustrated in the Book of Isaiah,

Our courts oppose the righteous, and justice is nowhere to be found. Truth stumbles in the streets, and honesty has been outlawed. Yes, truth is gone, and anyone who renounces evil is attacked. (Isaiah 59:14-15 NLT)

In this passage, the prophet Isaiah describes the moral climate of his age. He contrasts the injustice of the legal system with those who are righteous and honest. He personifies God's truth and declares that it has fallen like a corpse lying in the street.

This prophecy foretells the acts of injustice imposed on Jesus during his trial where he testified to the truth (John 18:37 NLT). In the hours leading up to his crucifixion, Jesus' truth claims were on trial before the Jewish Sanhedrin and the Roman procurator Pilate. The Jewish leaders charged Jesus with blasphemy because he claimed to be the Messiah, the Son of God, and with subverting the authority of the Roman Emperor by claiming to be the King of the Jews.

Jesus, the incarnation of God's truth, literally stumbles on the road to Calvary (Luke 23:26-27) and was put to death unjustly (Luke 23:4).

Apostles Declare that Jesus is the Truth of God

In John 1:1, the Apostle John referred to Jesus as the Word or the Logos. In the Greek, logos means "word" and "thought". In this context Jesus is portrayed as the full expression of God, God's ultimate revelation of himself. According to John, the disciples witnessed the very nature of God in the life and teaching of Jesus.

Likewise, in Colossians 2:9-10, the Apostle Paul says "For in Christ lives all the fullness of God in a human body." Paul makes it clear that Jesus is fully divine [PHY-DS06] and reveals the true character of God.

Jesus Declares that He is the Truth of God

Jesus frequently prefaced his teachings with the phrase "I tell you the truth" or AMEN. He used this phrase 68 times in the gospels. The significance of this phrase is often overlooked. Because Jesus used this phrase before a teaching, he implied that the teaching is absolutely true. In effect, Jesus is claiming, "I know this is true firsthand because I am the author of this truth!" [HIS-EV29]

Jesus not only speaks the truth of God but is the very essence of God's truth. Jesus claims to be the incarnation of God's truth when he said,

"I am the way, the truth, and the life. (John 14:6 NLT)

Jesus Declares that the Holy Spirit is the Truth of God

Jesus proclaims that the Holy Spirit will be his successor, and that the Holy Spirit possesses the same divine nature as God the Father and Jesus the Son.

• "He is the Holy Spirit, who leads into all truth." (John 14:17 NLT)
• "But I will send you the Advocate—the Spirit of truth." (John 15:26 NLT)
• "When the Spirit of truth comes, he will guide you into all truth. He will not speak on his own but will tell you what he has heard." (John 16:13 NLT)

The principal role of the Holy Spirit is to illuminate God's revealed truth and guide the believer in all truth. He will possess and equip all believers with God's truth, in all places for all time.

Resources:

• Defending the Faith: An Introduction to Apologetics (REF-RCS04)

• Physical Constant (REF-NWE01)

Evidence 3.6.2: Philosophical Basis for God's Truth (BIB-EV97)

Summary: https://open.spotify.com/episode/0dBHBC38i7BbroYFAyNW9S Philosophers and critics throughout the ages have recognized that truth must conform to reality. Through the use of rational thought and empirical observation we are able to observe truth in the real world. Belief systems based on religious pluralism and moral relativism are inherently self-contradictory and thus invalid.

In an age of tolerance, truth has been "denigrated to the level of personal preference" according to R.C. Sproul [REF-RCS05].

Truth is independent of likes and desires. It is rooted in the transcendent being of God which exists apart from the created order of space, time and matter.

A valid religious belief system provides a comprehensive understanding of truth devoid of contradictions. If any of the tenets of a belief system are contradictory, the system of truth is invalidated based on the law of non-contradiction [PHY-IS02], and considered irrational and inconsistent.

Truth and Reality

Philosophers and critics throughout the ages have recognized the fundamental relationship between truth and reality. Noah Webster, author of the Webster Dictionary of 1825 states that "truth conforms to fact or reality". Ravi Zacharias defines truth as "that which affirms propositionally the nature of reality as it is". R.C. Sproul says that "truth is that which corresponds to reality as perceived by God".

To fully understand the nature of truth we turn to the field of epistemology. Epistemology is the study of the nature of knowledge and the rationality of belief. It is based primarily on the theories of rationalism and empiricism.

Rationalism teaches that knowledge is the product of logic and reason (rational thought). Alternately, empiricism teaches that knowledge is a product of sensory perception (empirical evidence). Together, we use logic and reason to validate things we observe with our five senses.

The wholistic approach of rational thought plus empirical observation enables us to come to sound conclusions based on our experience of the real world.

Religious Pluralism and Moral Relativism

Pluralists argue that all truth claims are equally valid. As applied to religious belief systems, religious pluralists argue that all religions are equally valid. Many of the pluralistic belief systems such as the Bahá'í Faith, Universalism, and Buddhism are based on personal beliefs as opposed to a single transcendent truth.

While religious pluralism is accepting of all belief systems, it is fundamentally self-contradictory. The Law of Non-Contradiction [PHY-IS02] says these competing belief systems are impossible and cannot coexist in space and time.

Similarly, moral relativism asserts that morality is not based on absolute standards. Rather, moral relativists ardently claim that there is no such thing as absolute truth and morality, but rather personal truth and morality. How are relativists absolutely certain that there is "no such thing as absolute truth" if there are no absolutes! Consequently, moral relativists are caught in their own self-contradiction.

Another way to reason about moral relativism is to assume that if there are a seemingly infinite number of truth systems, then there must be at least one truth system that is absolute and self-consistent.

Conclusion

Religious pluralism and moral relativism are errant in assuming that there is no such thing as a transcendent truth. Apart from a transcendent truth, all other personal and contradictory truths are inherently invalid.

We can trust the processes of rational thought and empirical observation of the real world to guide us in discerning God's truth.

Resources:

• Blueprint for Thinking (Audio CD) (REF-RCS05)

3.6.3 Claim: God Reveals Truth (BIB-IS14)

The Greek word for truth is aletheia, which literally means to "un-hide" or "hiding nothing." It conveys the thought that truth is always there, always open and available for all to see, with nothing being hidden or obscured.

The Hebrew word for truth is emeth, which means "firmness," "constancy" and "duration." Such a definition implies an everlasting substance and something that can be relied upon.

God has progressively revealed himself throughout the ages. First, he revealed himself in nature. Then he revealed himself through the Old Testament prophets. Finally, God revealed himself through the person of Jesus Christ, his ultimate revelation.

Pilate's Encounter with God's Truth

During Jesus' trial, Pilate called into question both the existence and relevance of truth.

Jesus answered, "My Kingdom is not an earthly kingdom. If it were, my followers would fight to keep me from being handed over to the Jewish leaders. But my Kingdom is not of this world." Pilate said, "So you are a king?" Jesus responded, "You say I am a king. Actually, I was born and came into the world to testify to the truth. All who love the truth recognize that what I say is true." "What is truth?" Pilate asked. (John 18:36-38 NLT)

It is clear from this dialogue that the truth of God is on trial. This is literally a "war of words" over the meaning of words such as truth, kingdom and power.

• Is Jesus the king of a celestial kingdom?
• Does he have power over all rulers and authorities (John 19:8-11)?
• Is there such a thing as transcendent, objective truth?

These questions have perplexed philosophers throughout the ages.

Evidence of God's Truth

The truth of God's revelation is declared by creation, the prophets, the apostles, Jesus and the Holy Spirit [BIB-EV96]. God's revealed truth is abundantly available for all to see.

Through the use of rational thought and empirical observation, we can assess the nature of God's truth [BIB-EV97].

Nature of God's Truth

God's truth must be transcendent, absolute, inerrant and infallible to be true.

• God's Truth is Transcendent: God's truth is rooted in the invariant nature of the creator God. Truth cannot be a byproduct of creation but must have preexisted creation. Therefore, truth must come from the transcendent being of God which exists apart from the created order of space, time and matter.
• God's Truth is Absolute: To be absolute, God's truth must be free of restrictions, exceptions and conditions. Therefore, God's truth must be self-consistent where all its constituent truths are devoid of conflict or contradiction. Many of these truths are exhibited in the fundamental laws of nature, mathematics, etc.
• God's Truth is Inerrant: Inerrancy (without error) is the assertion that the Bible is free from error. To be true, God's truth must be without error. There is no error of truth; no deceit; no fraud; no lies; no intention to deceive. Another way to define inerrancy is simply that the Bible tells the truth. (Psalms 12:6, Psalms 119:89, Proverbs 30:5-6, John 17:17, Matthew 4:4).
• God's Truth is Infallible: Infallibility (it cannot err) is a stronger word than inerrancy. But because God's truth exists apart from space, time and matter, it is not subject to change. Infallibility is the doctrine that the Bible cannot fail in accomplishing its purpose. (Isaiah 55:11)
• God's Truth is Eternal: God's truth is rooted in the eternal nature of God. Because God is outside of time, God's truth is timeless and immutable.

Because of these singular properties, God's truth is trustworthy.

3.7 Closing Argument: Revelation of God is Visible, Inspired, Reliable, and Trustworthy (PHY-DS04)

Argument:
(Premise₁) God Revealed Himself in Creation [BIB-IS10]
(Premise₂) God Revealed Himself Through Prophets [BIB-IS11]
(Premise₃) God's Revelation is Inspired [BIB-IS11]
(Premise₄) God's Revelation was Transmitted Reliably [BIB-IS13]
(Premise₅) God's Revelation was Authenticated by Church Councils [BIB-IS08]
(Premise₆) God's Revelation is True [BIB-IS14]
(Conclusion) Therefore, What God Revealed About Himself is Visible, Inspired, Reliable, and Trustworthy

When you reveal something, you disclose or make known what already exists. God is invisible and cannot be seen. Revelation is how God makes himself known to us. He is revealing what is true about himself.

In revealing himself, God takes the initiative. We do not "discover" God, as if He is hiding, and somehow we find him. God is continually disclosing (uncovering) himself in a variety of ways.

Sometimes, people are not even looking for God, and He shows himself. Other times, people are hungry to know about Him, and He comes to them. Even our seeking is in response to a work He does to help us see our need or awakens our disinterested hearts. Blaise Pascal said that there is enough evidence for the heart to desire God and want to know him.

"To those who wish to see, God gives them sufficient light. To those who do not wish to see, God gives them sufficient darkness."

To paraphrase, God gives enough light to those who wish to see him, but not so much light that we are forced to see him.

Progressive Revelation

God's revelation of himself is progressive. God revealed himself over the span of millennia from the time of creation to the present age.

First, God revealed himself in nature. Then he revealed himself through the Old Testament prophets.

Jesus declares that the Old Testament scriptures prophesied about him.

"You search the Scriptures because you think they give you eternal life. But the Scriptures point to me!" (John 5:39 NLT)

John the Baptist also testifies about Jesus.

"He has come from above and is greater than anyone else. We are of the earth, and we speak of earthly things, but he has come from heaven and is greater than anyone else. He testifies about what he has seen and heard, but how few believe what he tells them! Anyone who accepts his testimony can affirm that God is true. For he is sent by God. He speaks God’s words, for God gives him the Spirit without limit. The Father loves his Son and has put everything into his hands. " (John 3:31-35 NLT)

From John's testimony we learn that Jesus is God's Son, he came from heaven, he was sent by God to speak God's truth and he has been given full authority over all creation. Ultimately, God revealed himself through the person of Jesus Christ, the climax of his revelation.

The writer of Hebrews affirms that Jesus is the final revelation.

"Long ago God spoke many times and in many ways to our ancestors through the prophets. And now in these final days, he has spoken to us through his Son." (Hebrews 1:1-2 NLT)

God the Holy Spirit illuminates God's revealed truth in the present age.

"When the Spirit of truth comes, he will guide you into all truth. He will not speak on his own but will tell you what he has heard." (John 16:13 NLT)

This passage informs us that the Holy Spirit guides us into the truth Jesus already revealed through his incarnation.

Preservation of God's Revelation

God's revelation of himself is preserved throughout the ages. The principle activities ensuring the preservation of God's revealed truth include:

• Revelation - the unveiling of truth through creation, prophets of God and ultimately Jesus
• Inspiration - the reception of truth by the people of God
• Inscripturation - the recording of truth by prophets and eyewitnesses
• Transmission - the replication and propagation of truth by the people of God
• Illumination - the clarification and application of truth by God the Holy Spirit

All these activities are the work of God.

Types of Revelation

General Revelation gives us knowledge of God as Creator.

God showing himself generally, to everyone. It is ongoing, sustained disclosure about Himself or His attributes to all people at all times. General revelation comes to us both externally through creation (outside us) and internally through our innate moral conscience (inside us). This is analogous to a broadcast tower (general to all who hear).

Special Revelation gives us knowledge of God as Redeemer.

God revealing Himself by special means to specific people. This is analogous to a set of ear buds (specific to the person using them).

The Bible is God’s special revelation in human words. The most important and accessible example of special revelation for us today is the Bible itself.

The writer of Hebrews qualifies the Word of God by saying,

"For the word of God is alive and powerful. It is sharper than the sharpest two-edged sword, cutting between soul and spirit, between joint and marrow. It exposes our innermost thoughts and desires." (Hebrews 4:12, also see Romans 2, Romans 3:1-2, 2 Timothy 3:14-17)

Jesus is God’s special revelation in human form. Jesus is a physical man who is recorded in history. Through Jesus, God came to people in time and space.

"The Word became flesh and made His dwelling among us." (John 1:14)

Special Revelation gives us specific information that we could never glean from nature. The content of special revelation is specific knowledge of God as redeemer in the person of Jesus Christ. It tells us about Jesus the Redeemer, our sinful state and our need for redemption.

Conclusion

God's general revelation of himself is open and available for all to see. Creation speaks loudly of a creator God. His handiwork in the created order is visible and unmistakable.

In this age of human history, most people have heard about Jesus. This is evidenced by the fact that Jesus is the most famous person in the history of mankind based on numerous polls and surveys. What Jesus revealed in the New Testament has been regarded by most civilizations as the benchmark for human conduct and morality.

What is remarkable about the truth Jesus revealed is that it has stood the test of time! It has superseded all other truths.

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Resource: World Ensemble Explanations
Authors: Quentin Smith
Publisher: Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 67, 1986
Publish Date: 1986
Page: 82

× Resource ID: REF-CME01
Resource: The Bible: An Extraterrestrial Message
Authors: Chuck Missler, Mark Eastman
Publisher: Koinonia House Inc.
Publish Date: 2019
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-NEW01
Resource: Newton's Laws of Motion
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-GEI03
Resource: From God to Us
Authors: Norman L. Geisler, William E. Nix
Publisher: Moody Publishers
Publish Date: August 1, 2012, 2nd Edition
ISBN 10: 0802428827
ISBN 13: 978-0802428820
Page: 66

× KINGDOMS:
The term kingdom is a biological term that represents groups of organisms that are one level higher in the taxonomic ladder than phyla. Organisms at the kingdom level are more distinct than organisms at the phyla level and have a less likely chance of resembling each other. Dawkins implies that ALL living organism resemble each other genetically regardless of their taxonomic classification, and therefore ALL organisms must have emanated from the same point of origin.

× Resource ID: REF-LIN01
Resource: nonsingular-regenerating-inflationary-universe
Authors: Andrei D. Linde
Publisher: Andrei-Linde.com
Publish Date: July 1982
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-BEH03
Resource: Simulating evolution by gene duplication of protein features that require multiple amino acid residues
Authors: Michael J. Behe, David W. Snoke
Publisher: Protein Science 2004 Oct; 13(10): 2651–2664
Publish Date: 2004
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-INF01
Resource: Infinity
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Click Here

× RADIATION:
The emission of energy as electromagnetic waves or as moving subatomic particles, especially high-energy particles that cause ionization. Electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths other than visible light were discovered in the early 19th century.
Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-PEN01
Resource: The "Just-So" Universe
Authors: Walter Bradley, Ph.D
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-BEH02
Resource: Irreducible Complexity - Obstacle to Darwinian Evolution
Authors: Michael J. Behe
Publisher: Lehigh University
Publish Date: 1996
URL: Lehigh University ...

× LAWS OF LOGIC:
At the most fundamental level, mathematics is a numbering system consisting of 0's and 1's. This base-2 numbering system is used by computers. Numbers consisting of 0's and 1's are not only computational but also logical where 0 and 1 denote false and true respectively.

× Resource ID: REF-MTX02
Resource: What is the Masoretic Text?
Authors: Got Questions.org
Publisher: Got Questions.org
URL: Got Questions ...

× Resource ID: REF-BEH01
Resource: Darwin's Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution
Authors: Michael Behe
Publisher: New York: Free Press
Publish Date: 1996

× Resource ID: REF-MTX01
Resource: Masoretic Text
Authors: Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Publisher: Encyclopaedia Britannica
URL: Encyclopaedia Britannica ...

× PSEUDEPIGRAPHA:
Pseudepigrapha are spurious or pseudonymous writings, especially Jewish writings ascribed to various biblical patriarchs and prophets but composed within approximately 200 years of the birth of Jesus Christ. The authorship of these writings is suspicious.
Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-CRK01
Resource: Life Itself: Its Origin and Nature
Authors: Francis Crick
Publish Date: January 1, 1981
ISBN 10: 0671255622
ISBN 13: 978-0671255626

× Resource ID: REF-JWW01
Resource: Cold-Case Christianity
Authors: J. Warner Wallace
Publisher: David C Cook
Publish Date: 2013
ISBN 10: 978-1-4347-0469-6
Page: 62-64

× Resource ID: REF-BUC01
Resource: Geology and Mineralogy Considered with Reference to Natural Theology
Authors: William Buckland
Publisher: Lea & Blanchard
Publish Date: 1841
ISBN 13: 978-1-147-86894-4

× Resource ID: REF-JBP01
Resource: Encyclopedia of Biblical Prophecy
Authors: J. Barton Payne
Publisher: Baker Pub Group
Publish Date: June 1, 1980
ISBN 10: 0801070511
ISBN 13: 978-0801070518

× Resource ID: REF-BAT01
Resource: Haldane’s Dilemma Has Not Been Solved
Authors: Don Batten
Publisher: Creation Ministries International
Publish Date: April 20-21, 2005
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-NWE01
Resource: Physical Constant
Authors: New World Encyclopedia
Publisher: newworldencyclopedia.org
URL: Click Here

× SYLLOGISM:
A syllogism is a form of logical reasoning that joins two or more premises to arrive at a conclusion. For example: "All birds lay eggs. A swan is a bird. Therefore, a swan lays eggs." Syllogisms contain a major premise and a minor premise to create the conclusion, i.e., a more general statement and a more specific statement. In the example, the major premise is that all birds lay eggs. The minor premise is that a swan is a bird. The conclusion links these two propositions to conclude that if a swan is a bird it must lay eggs. Syllogistic arguments are generally presented in this three-line format.
Literary Devices ...

× Resource ID: REF-PHY02
Resource: List of Physical Constants
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-EPG01
Resource: Epigenetics
Authors: Kara RogersJudith L. Fridovich-Keil
Publisher: Encyclopedia Britannica
URL: Encyclopedia Britannica ...

× Resource ID: REF-PHY01
Resource: Physical Constant
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-EWH01
Resource: Christology of the Old Testament
Authors: E. W. Hengstenberg, D.D.
Publisher: Kregel Publications; 1st edition
Publish Date: 1970
ISBN 10: 0825428122
ISBN 13: 978-0825428128

× Resource ID: REF-THER01
Resource: Second Law of Thermodynamics
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
Publish Date: Current
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-HOY01
Resource: Intelligent Universe: A New View of Creation and Evolution
Authors: Sir Fred Hoyle
Publisher: Michael Joseph Ltd
Publish Date: Oct 31, 1983 (First Edition)
Page: 19

× TRUTHINESS:
Truthiness is the belief or assertion that a particular statement is true based on the intuition or perceptions of some individual or individuals, without regard to evidence, logic, intellectual examination, or facts. Coined by US humorist Stephen Colbert.
Merriam-Webster ...
Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-GEI04
Resource: A General Introduction to the Bible, Revised and Expanded
Authors: Norm L. Geisler, William E. Nix
Publisher: Moody Publishers
Publish Date: August 8, 1986
ISBN 10: 0802429165
ISBN 13: 978-0802429162

× Resource ID: REF-GEI03
Resource: From God to Us
Authors: Norman L. Geisler, William E. Nix
Publisher: Moody Publishers
Publish Date: August 1, 2012, 2nd Edition
ISBN 10: 0802428827
ISBN 13: 978-0802428820

× Resource ID: REF-PAT01
Resource: Patterns in Nature
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Wikipedia ...

× TELEOLOGY:
Teleology is the philosophical attempt to describe things in terms of their apparent purpose, directive principle, or goal. A philosophy explaining phenomena by their ends or purposes. A purpose that is imposed by the creator is intrinsic. A purpose that is imposed by a human use, such as that of a fork, is called extrinsic.
Wikipedia ...

× EPISTEMOLOGY:
Epistemology the study or a theory of the nature and grounds of knowledge especially with reference to its limits and validity.
Merriam-Webster ...

× Resource ID: REF-GEI01
Resource: I Don't Have Enough FAITH to Be an ATHEIST
Authors: Norman L. Geisler, Frank Turek
Publisher: Crossway
Publish Date: 2004
ISBN 10: 1-58134-561-5
ISBN 13: 978-1-58134-561-2
Page: 73-75

× Resource ID: REF-CELL01
Resource: How Cells Work
Authors: MARSHALL BRAIN
Publisher: How Stuff Works
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-WAT01
Resource: Broad Supernatural Punishment but not Moralizing High Gods Precede the Evolution of Political Complexity in Austronesia
Authors: Joseph Watts, Simon J. Greenhill, Quentin D. Atkinson, Thomas E. Currie, Joseph Bulbulia, Russell D. Gray
Publisher: The Royal Society: Proceedings of the Royal Society B (Biological Sciences)
Publish Date: March 4, 2015
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-GEI03
Resource: From God to Us
Authors: Norman L. Geisler, William E. Nix
Publisher: Moody Publishers
Publish Date: August 1, 2012, 2nd Edition
ISBN 10: 0802428827
ISBN 13: 978-0802428820
Page: 118-120

× Resource ID: REF-RFS01
Resource: New Testament Manuscripts
Authors: Religion Facts
Publisher: Religion Facts
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-SCM01
Resource: Darwin's Doubt
Authors: Stephen C. Meyer
Publisher: HarperOne
Publish Date: 2013
ISBN 10: 978-0-06-207148-4
Page: 271-287

× Resource ID: REF-SIEG01
Resource: The Universe Really Is Fine-Tuned, And Our Existence Is the Proof
Authors: Ethan Siegel
Publisher: Forbes
Publish Date: Dec 19, 2019
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-CBB01
Resource: Cyclic Model (Oscillating Big Bang Model)
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-ROK02
Resource: Animal Evolution and the Molecular Signature of Radiations compressed in time
Authors: Rokas, A., D. Krueger and S. B. Carroll
Publisher: Science 310: 1933-1938
Publish Date: 2005

× Resource ID: REF-SEP03
Resource: The Septuagint Bible (LXX): The Greek Translation of the Hebrew Scriptures
Authors: Septuagint.Bible
Publisher: Septuagint.Bible
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-ROK01
Resource: Spotlight: Drawing the Tree of Life
Authors: Antonis Rokas
Publisher: Broad Institute
Publish Date: November 15, 2006
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-SEP02
Resource: Septuagint
Authors: Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Publisher: Encyclopaedia Britannica
URL: Encyclopaedia Britannica ...

× Resource ID: REF-PAN01
Resource: Panspermia
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-SEP01
Resource: Septuagint
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-WLC03
Resource: Reasonable Faith - Christian Truth and Apologetics
Authors: William Lane Craig
Publisher: Crossway Books
Publish Date: 1984
ISBN 10: 0-89107-764-2

× Resource ID: REF-WLC02
Resource: The Kalam Cosmological Argument
Authors: William Lane Craig
Publisher: Reasonable Faith
Publish Date: 2015
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-HIL01
Resource: Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-FFB02
Resource: The Canon of Scripture
Authors: F. F. Bruce
Publisher: InterVarsity Press
Publish Date: 1988
ISBN 10: 9780830812585
ISBN 13: 978-0830812585

× Resource ID: REF-WLC01
Resource: Does God Exist?
Authors: William Lane Craig
Publisher: Reasonable Faith
Publish Date: 12/2013
URL: Click Here

× STASIS:
Stasis is a period or state of biological inactivity or equilibrium. Statis is observed in the geological record following the Cambrian period from 485 million years ago to present.
Merriam-Webster ...

× Resource ID: REF-GEI03
Resource: From God to Us
Authors: Norman L. Geisler, William E. Nix
Publisher: Moody Publishers
Publish Date: August 1, 2012, 2nd Edition
ISBN 10: 0802428827
ISBN 13: 978-0802428820
Page: 150-153

× PUNITIVE GOD:
A punishing god. One who inflicts punishment.

× Resource ID: REF-POP01
Resource: Population Genetics
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-DBW01
Resource: Daniel B. Wallace - Paleographer
Authors: Daniel B. Wallace
URL: Click Here

× GENERAL REVELATION:
Need definition.

× Resource ID: REF-WIL01
Resource: Natural Selection: Domains, Levels, and Challenges
Authors: George Williams
Publisher: Oxford University Press, New York
Publish Date: 1992
Page: 143-148

× PHYLA:
A phylum is a primary category in biological taxonomy. A phylum is a distinct body plan. Phyla contain classes, orders, familties, genera and finally species.

Click on image for more details ...

Merriam-Webster Dictionary ...
Wikipedia ...
Encyclopaedia Britannica ...

× Resource ID: REF-GEI03
Resource: From God to Us
Authors: Norman L. Geisler, William E. Nix
Publisher: Moody Publishers
Publish Date: August 1, 2012, 2nd Edition
ISBN 10: 0802428827
ISBN 13: 978-0802428820
Page: 115

× Resource ID: REF-BAB02
Resource: The Moral Baby
Authors: Karen Wynn and Paul Bloom
Publish Date: 6/26/2013
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-BAB01
Resource: Infant Cognition Center at Yale - Baby Lab
Authors: Karen Wynn, Professor of Psychology
Publisher: Yale University
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-VIL02
Resource: Did the Universe Have a Beginning? (Paper)
Authors: Alexander Vilenkin - Director of the Institute of Cosmology at Tufts University
Publisher: http://inference-review.com/article/the-beginning-of-the-universe
Publish Date: 1/2012
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-VIL01
Resource: Did the Universe Have a Beginning? (Slides)
Authors: Alexander Vilenkin - Director of the Institute of Cosmology at Tufts University
Publish Date: 1/2012
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-ACW01
Resource: Generalized Second Law Implies a Quantum Singularity Theorem
Authors: Aron C. Wall
Publisher: arXiv: 1010.5513v3 [gr-qc] 24 (Jan 2013)
Publish Date: Jan 2013

× Resource ID: REF-WHI01
Resource: Astronomers Size Up the Universe
Authors: Whitehouse, David
Publisher: BBC New
Publish Date: May 28, 2004
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-HOY03
Resource: Albanian Development: Hoxha Looks Ahead
Authors: V. A. Rich
Publisher: Nature, Vol. 294
Publish Date: November 12, 1981
Page: 105
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-SCM01
Resource: Darwin's Doubt
Authors: Stephen C. Meyer
Publisher: HarperOne
Publish Date: 2013
ISBN 10: 978-0-06-207148-4

× Resource ID: REF-CAU03
Resource: Axiom of Causality
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-CAU02
Resource: Causal Determinism
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-CAU01
Resource: Physical Causality
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Click Here

× INFINITY:
Limitless or endless in space, extent, or size; impossible to measure or calculate.
Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-BBT01
Resource: History of the Big Bang Theory
Publisher: Wikipedia
Publish Date: 1225-to date
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-WLC03
Resource: Reasonable Faith - Christian Truth and Apologetics
Authors: William Lane Craig
Publisher: Crossway Books
Publish Date: 1984
ISBN 10: 0-89107-764-2
Page: 193-227

× Resource ID: REF-WALD02
Resource: Innovation and Biology
Authors: George Wald
Publisher: Scientific American, Vol. 199
Publish Date: Sept. 1958
Page: 100

× INFLATIONARY BIG BANG:
Inflation is a theory of exponential expansion of space in the early universe. The inflationary epoch lasted from 10-36 seconds after the Big Bang singularity to sometime between 10-33 and 10-32 seconds after the singularity. Following the inflationary period, the Universe continues to expand, but at a less rapid rate.
Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-EVO02
Resource: Convergent Evolution
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-BGV01
Resource: Borde-Guth-Vilenkin Theorem
Authors: Arvind Borde, Alan Guth, Alexander Vilenkin
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Wikipedia ...

× COSMOLOGICAL:
The science of the origin and development of the universe. Modern astronomy is dominated by the Big Bang theory, which brings together observational astronomy and particle physics.
Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-NTM01
Resource: Center for the Study of New Testament Manuscripts
Authors: Daniel B. Wallace
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-JFW01
Resource: The Prophecy Knowledge Handbook
Authors: John F. Walvoord
Publisher: Victor Books
Publish Date: October 1, 1990
ISBN 10: 0896935094
ISBN 13: 978-0896935099

× ANTHROPIC PRINCIPLE:
The Anthropic Principle states that the cosmological properties of the universe, and more specifically planet Earth, are finely tuned for the expressed purpose of enabling carbon-based life and human consciousness. Anthropic is the Greek word for "human" or "human being".
Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-MUL01
Resource: Origination of Organismal Form: Beyond the Gene in Developmental and Evolutionary Biology
Authors: Gerd B. Muller, Stuart A. Newman, editors
Publisher: The MIT Press
Publish Date: 2003
ISBN 10: 0-262-13419-5

× Resource ID: REF-HOV01
Resource: Mathematical Challenges to Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
Authors: David Berlinski, David Gelernter, Stephen Meyer
Publisher: Hoover Institute (Stanford University)
Publish Date: Jul 22, 2019
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-KGM01
Resource: Kingdom (Biology)
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-WALD02
Resource: Innovation and Biology
Authors: George Wald
Publisher: Scientific American, Vol. 199
Publish Date: Sept. 1958

× LAW OF NON-CONTRADICTION:
The law of non-contradiction states that a given object cannot be in two contradictory states at the same time.
Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-WALD01
Resource: The Origin of Life
Authors: George Wald
Publisher: Scientific American (vol. 191)
Publish Date: August 1954

× Resource ID: REF-IRE01
Resource: Irenaeus of Lyons; Against Heresies, Book III
Authors: Irenaeus of Lyons
Publisher: Early Christian Writings
Publish Date: A.D. 180
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-MAY01
Resource: Natural Selection and the Concept of a Protein Space
Authors: John Maynard Smith
Publisher: Nature volume 225, pages 563–564
Publish Date: February 7, 1970
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-DEN01
Resource: Evolution: A Theory in Crisis
Authors: Michael Denton
Publisher: Adler & Adler
Publish Date: 1997
ISBN 10: 091756152X
ISBN 13: 9780917561528

× PANTHEIST:
A doctrine that identifies God with the universe, or regards the universe as a manifestation of God where God is in all things.
Wikipedia ...

× EPISTEMOLOGY:
Epistemology the study or a theory of the nature and grounds of knowledge especially with reference to its limits and validity.
Merriam-Webster ...

× Resource ID: REF-HAWK01
Resource: The Singularities of Gravitational Collapse and Cosmology
Authors: S. W. Hawking, R. Penrose
Publisher: Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
Publish Date: January 1970
ISBN 10: Published 27 January 1970.DOI: 10.1098/rspa.1970.0021
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-HAL03
Resource: The Cost of Natural Selection
Authors: J. B. S. Haldane
Publisher: Journal of Genetics 55
Publish Date: January 1, 1957
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-HAL02
Resource: Jesus’ Resurrection and the Failure of the Hallucination Theory
Authors: Christiaan Rudolph de Beer
Publish Date: April 24, 2013
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-CRT09
Resource: Historical Criticism
Authors: Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Publisher: Encyclopaedia Britannica
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-CRT08
Resource: Redaction Criticism
Authors: Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Publisher: Encyclopaedia Britannica
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-CRT07
Resource: Form Criticism
Authors: Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Publisher: Encyclopaedia Britannica
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-CRT06
Resource: Tradition Criticism
Authors: Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Publisher: Encyclopaedia Britannica
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-CRT05
Resource: Literary Criticism
Authors: Frederick C. Crews
Publisher: Encyclopedia Britannica
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-CRT04
Resource: Philological Criticism
Authors: Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Publisher: Encyclopaedia Britannica
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-CRT03
Resource: Textual Criticism
Authors: Edward John Kenney
Publisher: Encyclopedia Britannica
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-CRT02
Resource: The Critical Study of Biblical Literature: Exegesis and Hermeneutics
Authors: Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Publisher: Encyclopedia Britannica
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-CRT01
Resource: Biblical criticism
Authors: Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Publisher: Encyclopedia Britannica
URL: Click Here

× STEADY STATE THEORY:
The Steady State theory is an alternative to the Big Bang model of the evolution of the universe. In the steady-state theory, the density of matter in the expanding universe remains unchanged due to a continuous creation of matter. While the steady state model enjoyed some popularity in the mid-20th century, it is now rejected by the vast majority of cosmologists, astrophysicists and astronomers, as the observational evidence points to a hot Big Bang cosmology with a finite age of the universe, which the Steady State model does not predict.
Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-PUR01
Resource: Frame of the Universe: A History of Physical Cosmology
Authors: Durham, Frank; Purrington, Robert D.
Publisher: Columbia University Press
Publish Date: 1983
ISBN 10: ISBN 0-231-05393-2
Page: 193-209

× Resource ID: REF-ZAC03
Resource: Can Man Live Without God?
Authors: Ravi Zacharias
Publisher: Word Publishing
Publish Date: 1994
Page: 129

× Resource ID: REF-BOW01
Resource: Calibrating Rate of Early Cambrian Evolution
Authors: Samuel A. Bowring, et al.
Publisher: Science, vol. 261, no. 5126, p. 1293+
Publish Date: Sep 3, 1993
Page: 1297

× Resource ID: REF-RCS05
Resource: Blueprint for Thinking (Audio CD)
Authors: R. C. Sproul
Publisher: Ligonier Ministries
Publish Date: January 1, 1993
ISBN 10: 1567698034
ISBN 13: 978-1567698039

× ANTHROPIC CONDITIONS:
We use the term 'anthropic condition' in place of 'anthropic coincidence' (as used in the literature) to imply that nothing in creation is a coincidence but rather a condition intentionally designed by a transcendent intelligence.

× Resource ID: REF-RCS04
Resource: Defending the Faith: An Introduction to Apologetics
Authors: R. C. Sproul
Publisher: Crossway Books
Publish Date: 2003
ISBN 10: 1-58134-519-4

× Resource ID: REF-EDG01
Resource: The New Science of Morality
Authors: Various
Publisher: EDGE.org
Publish Date: 7/20/2010
URL: Click Here

× PROBABILITY SPACE:
A Probability Space consists of (1) a sample space of all possible outcomes, (2) an event space of all events and (3) a probability function that assigns probabilities to each event.
Statistics How To ...

× Resource ID: REF-RCS01
Resource: Christian Evidences Series - Does God Exist (Parts 1 & 2)
Authors: R. C. Sproul
Publisher: Ligonier Ministries Radio Broadcast
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-WIG01
Resource: The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences
Authors: Eugene Wigner
Publisher: Communications in Pure and Applied Mathematics, vol. 13, No. I (February 1960)
Publish Date: 1960
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-GEI03
Resource: From God to Us
Authors: Norman L. Geisler, William E. Nix
Publisher: Moody Publishers
Publish Date: August 1, 2012, 2nd Edition
ISBN 10: 0802428827
ISBN 13: 978-0802428820
Page: 69

× Resource ID: REF-RCO06
Resource: Home Page of Robin Collins, Messiah College
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-DAR01
Resource: On the Origin of Species
Authors: Charles Darwin
Publisher: Various
Publish Date: 1859

× COSMOLOGY:
The science of the origin and development of the universe. Modern astronomy is dominated by the Big Bang theory, which brings together observational astronomy and particle physics.
Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-RCO03
Resource: THE FINE-TUNING DESIGN ARGUMENT
Authors: Robin Collins
Publisher: Reason for the Hope Within
Publish Date: 1999
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-RCO01
Resource: The Fine-Tuning Design Argument
Authors: Robin Collins
Publisher: Discovery Institute
Publish Date: September 1, 1998
URL: Click Here

× RATIONALISM:
Rationalism is a theory that all knowledge originates from logic and reason. René Descartes (A.D. 1596-1650) was one of the first philosophers to espouse modern rationalism.
Merriam-Webster ...
Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-GEI03
Resource: From God to Us
Authors: Norman L. Geisler, William E. Nix
Publisher: Moody Publishers
Publish Date: August 1, 2012, 2nd Edition
ISBN 10: 0802428827
ISBN 13: 978-0802428820
Page: 170-174

× Resource ID: REF-AHA01
Resource: Humanism and Its Aspirations: Humanist Manifesto III
Authors: American Humanist Association
Publisher: American Humanist Association Organization
Publish Date: 2003
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-PENWIL02
Resource: Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (P)
Authors: Arno Penzies, Robert Wilson
Publisher: Wikipedia
Publish Date: 1964
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-PENWIL01
Resource: Discovery of Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (P)
Authors: Arno Penzies, Robert Wilson
Publisher: Wikipedia
Publish Date: 1964
URL: Click Here

× ANIMALIA:
There are thirty-four Animalia phyla defined consisting of approximately 1,500,000 species.

× PALEONTOLOGISTS:
Paleontology is the scientific study of life of the geologic past that involves the analysis of plant and animal fossils.
Encyclopaedia Britannica ...

× Resource ID: REF-GEI03
Resource: From God to Us
Authors: Norman L. Geisler, William E. Nix
Publisher: Moody Publishers
Publish Date: August 1, 2012, 2nd Edition
ISBN 10: 0802428827
ISBN 13: 978-0802428820
Page: 100

× SALTATION:
Saltation is the abrupt evolutionary change or sudden large-scale mutation. Saltation is observed in the geological record during the early Cambrian period between 541 million and approximately 530 million years ago.
Merriam-Webster ...

× TELEOLOGY:
Teleology is the philosophical attempt to describe things in terms of their apparent purpose, directive principle, or goal. A philosophy explaining phenomena by their ends or purposes. A purpose that is imposed by the creator is intrinsic. A purpose that is imposed by a human use, such as that of a fork, is called extrinsic.
Wikipedia ...

× MULTIPLE UNIVERSE THEORY:
The hypothetical set of possible infinite universes.
Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-JMD01
Resource: A Ready Defense - Best of Josh McDowell
Authors: Josh McDowell
Publisher: Here's Life Publishers
Publish Date: 1991
ISBN 10: 0-89840-281-6
Page: 134-136

× Resource ID: REF-BAU01
Resource: Turnaround in Cyclic Cosmology
Authors: Lauris Baum, Paul H. Frampton
Publisher: Cornell University
Publish Date: Nov 5, 2006
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-GEI03
Resource: From God to Us
Authors: Norman L. Geisler, William E. Nix
Publisher: Moody Publishers
Publish Date: August 1, 2012, 2nd Edition
ISBN 10: 0802428827
ISBN 13: 978-0802428820
Page: 247

× Resource ID: REF-DAW01
Resource: The Greatest Show on Earth: The Evidence for Evolution
Authors: Richard Dawkins
Publisher: Free Press
Publish Date: September 22, 2009
ISBN 10: 1416594795
ISBN 13: 978-1416594796
Page: 315

× Resource ID: REF-BOW01
Resource: Calibrating Rate of Early Cambrian Evolution
Authors: Samuel A. Bowring, et al.
Publisher: Science, vol. 261, no. 5126, p. 1293+
Publish Date: Sep 3, 1993

× Resource ID: REF-GEN01
Resource: Genomes
Authors: Terence A Brown
Publisher: Garland Science, 2^nd Edition
Publish Date: 2002
ISBN 10: 0-471-25046-5
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-BEH01
Resource: Darwin's Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution
Authors: Michael Behe
Publisher: New York: Free Press
Publish Date: 1996
Page: 39

× Resource ID: REF-GEI03
Resource: From God to Us
Authors: Norman L. Geisler, William E. Nix
Publisher: Moody Publishers
Publish Date: August 1, 2012, 2nd Edition
ISBN 10: 0802428827
ISBN 13: 978-0802428820
Page: 243

× Resource ID: REF-MATH02
Resource: Mathematics
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Click Here

× TRANSCENDENT:
Something that exists apart from and not subject to the limitations of the material universe, essentially, super-natural or outside of the natural universe.

× Resource ID: REF-MAC01
Resource: For Darwin Day, 6 Facts About the Evolution Debate
Authors: David Masci
Publisher: Pew Research Center
Publish Date: FEBRUARY 11, 2019
URL: Pew Research Center ...

× AUTOGRAPHS:
A Biblical manuscript in the author's own handwriting.
Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-WLC03
Resource: Reasonable Faith - Christian Truth and Apologetics
Authors: William Lane Craig
Publisher: Crossway Books
Publish Date: 1984
ISBN 10: 0-89107-764-2
Page: 94-100

× Resource ID: REF-SCM01
Resource: Darwin's Doubt
Authors: Stephen C. Meyer
Publisher: HarperOne
Publish Date: 2013
ISBN 10: 978-0-06-207148-4
Page: 230-254

× COALESCENCE:
Coalesce is when different elements of something join together and become one.
Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-LONC01
Resource: Law of Non-Contradiction
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-GEI01
Resource: I Don't Have Enough FAITH to Be an ATHEIST
Authors: Norman L. Geisler, Frank Turek
Publisher: Crossway
Publish Date: 2004
ISBN 10: 1-58134-561-5
ISBN 13: 978-1-58134-561-2
Page: 230-235

× Resource ID: REF-CNN02
Resource: Born Good? Babies Help Unlock the Origins of Morality
Authors: 60 Minutes, CNN
Publisher: 60 Minutes, CNN
Publish Date: Nov 18, 2012
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-CNN01
Resource: Are We Born with a Moral Core? The Baby Lab says 'YES'
Authors: Susan Chun
Publisher: cnn
Publish Date: February 14, 2014
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-DDS02
Resource: RADIOCARBON DATING OF FOURTEEN DEAD SEA SCROLLS
Authors: GEORGES BONANI, SUSAN IVY, WILLY WOLFLI, MAGEN BROSHI, ISRAEL CARMI and JOHN STRUGNELL
Publisher: Arizona University
Publish Date: 1992
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-SCM01
Resource: Darwin's Doubt
Authors: Stephen C. Meyer
Publisher: HarperOne
Publish Date: 2013
ISBN 10: 978-0-06-207148-4
Page: 114-135

× CIRCULAR ARGUMENTS:
A circular argument or circular reasoning is a logical fallacy. It is false logic. It is a form of tautology. In a circular argument, the opening clause is nothing more than a restatement of the conclusion. Circular arguments are a restatement rather than a proof.
Wikipedia ...
Encyclopedia Britannica ...

× Resource ID: REF-ROK02
Resource: Animal Evolution and the Molecular Signature of Radiations compressed in time
Authors: Rokas, A., D. Krueger and S. B. Carroll
Publisher: Science 310: 1933-1938
Publish Date: 2005
Page: 1933-1934

× Resource ID: REF-ENC01
Resource: Indigenous Religions
Authors: Encyclopedia.com
Publisher: Encyclopedia.com
Publish Date: 2007
URL: Click Here

× PROTEIN SYNTHESIS:
Protein synthesis is the process in which cells make proteins. It occurs in two stages: transcription and translation. Transcription is the transfer of genetic instructions in DNA to mRNA in the nucleus. Translation the process in which the genetic code in mRNA is read to make a protein.
FlexBooks ...
HowStuffWorks ...

× Resource ID: REF-COBE02
Resource: Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE)
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
Publish Date: Current
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-COBE01
Resource: LAMBDA - Legacy Archive for Microwave Background Data Analysis
Authors: National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Publisher: National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Publish Date: 1992
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-WALD01
Resource: The Origin of Life
Authors: George Wald
Publisher: Scientific American (vol. 191)
Publish Date: August 1954
Page: 44-53

× Resource ID: REF-SCT01
Resource: The Standard Cosmological Model: A Skeptic's Guide
Authors: Scott, Douglas
Publisher: CornelL University
Publish Date: 2018
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-HGP01
Resource: The Human Genome Project
Authors: National Human Genome Research Institute
Publisher: National Human Genome Research Institute
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-GLA01
Resource: Encyclopedia of Bible Difficulties
Authors: Gleason L. Archer
Publisher: Zondervan
Publish Date: January 1, 1982
ISBN 10: 0310435706
ISBN 13: 978-0310435709

× NUCLEOTIDES:
A nucleotide is the basic building block of RNA and DNA. A nucleotide consists of a sugar molecule, attached to a phosphate group and a nitrogen-containing base. The nitrogen-containing bases used in DNA are adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T). In RNA, the base uracil (U) takes the place of thymine.
Britannica ...

× EPIGENETIC:
The greek prefix "epi" means above and beyond. It represents biological information that is beyond genetics.

× MULTIVERSE:
The hypothetical set of possible infinite universes.
Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-SSM01
Resource: Steady State Model
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Click Here

× PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSIS:
Phylogenetics is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among individuals or groups of organisms. The end goal of phylogenetics is to identify, name and classify all living organisms into a taxonomic tree showing the heritable relationship among organisms.
Wikipedia ...

× PALEONTOLOGISTS:
Paleontology is the scientific study of life of the geologic past that involves the analysis of plant and animal fossils.
Encyclopaedia Britannica ...

× THERMODYNAMICS:
The branch of physical science that deals with the relations between heat and other forms of energy (such as mechanical, electrical, or chemical energy), and, by extension, of the relationships between all forms of energy.
Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-PACB01
Resource: Sequencing 101: The Evolution of DNA Sequencing Tools
Authors: PacBio
Publisher: PacBio
Publish Date: Wednesday, March 25, 2020
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-SAU01
Resource: Functionally Acceptable Substitutions in Two a-helical Regions of l Repressor
Authors: J.F. Reidhaar-Olson, R.T. Sauer
Publisher: Proteins: Structure, Function, and Genetics 7, 306-316.
Publish Date: 1990
URL: Click Here

× META-NARRATIVE:
A biblical meta-narrative is an overarching interpretation of events and circumstances that provides a pattern or framework for understanding individual accounts (e.g. books of the Bible, stories, teachings, etc.).

× Resource ID: REF-QUE01
Resource: World Ensemble Explanations
Authors: Quentin Smith
Publisher: Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 67, 1986
Publish Date: 1986

× Resource ID: REF-UOL01
Resource: Encyclopedia Genomica: UK Scientists Print the Book of Life in 130 Volumes
Authors: Kevin Davies
Publisher: Bio IT World
Publish Date: December 28, 2012
URL: Click Here

× SUPERNATURAL:
Above or outside the natural world.

× Resource ID: REF-SCM01
Resource: Darwin's Doubt
Authors: Stephen C. Meyer
Publisher: HarperOne
Publish Date: 2013
ISBN 10: 978-0-06-207148-4
Page: 80

× Resource ID: REF-FGK02
Resource: Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts
Authors: Frederic G. Kenyon
Publisher: The Internet Archive
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-FGK01
Resource: Our Bible and The Ancient Manuscripts: Being A History of The Text and Its Translations
Authors: Frederic G. Kenyon
Publisher: Kessinger Publishing, LLC
Publish Date: July 25, 2007
ISBN 10: 9780548138328
ISBN 13: 978-0548138328

× Resource ID: REF-MET01
Resource: What is a Metanarrative?
Publisher: gotquestions.org
URL: Got Questions ...

× Resource ID: REF-RTB03
Resource: Fine-Tuning for Life on Earth
Authors: Reasons to Believe
Publisher: Reasons to Believe
Publish Date: June 7, 2004
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-FIB02
Resource: Fibonacci Numbers
Authors: The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica
Publisher: Encyclopedia Britannica
Publish Date: June 14, 2008
URL: Encyclopedia Britannica ...

× Resource ID: REF-RTB02
Resource: Probability for Life on Earth
Authors: Hugh Ross
Publisher: Reasons to Believe
Publish Date: April 2004
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-FIB01
Resource: 15 Uncanny Examples of the Golden Ratio in Nature
Authors: George Dvorsky
Publisher: GIZMODO
Publish Date: Febuary 20, 2013
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-RTB01
Resource: Reasons to Believe
Authors: Hugh Ross
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-SJG03
Resource: Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism
Authors: Niles Eldredge, Stephen J. Gould
Publisher: Models in Paleobiology. San Francisco: Freeman Cooper. pp. 82-115
Publish Date: 1972
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-ANTH02
Resource: At Amazon’s Biggest Data Center, Everything Is Supersized for A.I.
Authors: Karen Weise, Cade Metz
Publisher: New York Times
Publish Date: June 24, 2025
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-DEW02
Resource: Greater Than 98% Chimp/Human DNA Similarity? Not Anymore
Authors: David A. DeWitt
Publisher: Answers in Genesis
Publish Date: April 1, 2003
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-SJG02
Resource: Punctuated Equilibrium
Authors: Stephen Jay Gould
Publisher: Harvard University Press
Publish Date: May 31, 2007
ISBN 13: 9780674024441

× Resource ID: REF-ANTH01
Resource: Anthropic Principle
Authors: Wikipedia
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-DEW01
Resource: Chimp Genome Sequence Very Different from Man
Authors: David A. DeWitt
Publisher: Answers in Genesis
Publish Date: September 5, 2005
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-SJG01
Resource: The Panda's Thumb: More Reflections in Natural History
Authors: Stephen Jay Gould
Publisher: W. W. Norton & Company; Reissue edition
Publish Date: August 17, 1992
ISBN 10: 0393308197
ISBN 13: 978-0393308198
URL: Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-WPY02
Resource: Watchmaker Analogy
Authors: William Paley
Publisher: Wikipedia
URL: Wikipedia ...

× Resource ID: REF-WPY01
Resource: Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity
Authors: William Paley
Publisher: R. Faulder, London John Morgan, Philadelphia (Original)
Publish Date: 1802
URL: Click Here

× Resource ID: REF-DWK01
Resource: The Blind Watchmaker
Authors: Richard Dawkins
Publisher: W. W. Norton & Company
Publish Date: September 28, 2015
ISBN 10: 0393351491
ISBN 13: 978-0393351491

× Resource ID: REF-DUR01
Resource: Probability Models for DNA Sequence Evolution
Authors: Rick Durrett
Publisher: Duke University - Department of Mathematics
Publish Date: 2008 (2nd edition)
URL: Click Here

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