Once we have established that Jesus is Divine, we establish that Jesus conquered death by rising from the dead. We observed that Jesus appeared bodily to 500+ people after his certain death by crucifixion. This is evidenced by extra-biblical accounts, eyewitness testimony, forensics and circumstantial evidence.
Jesus died a certain death from injuries resulting from Roman scourging and crucifixion. He was later witnessed alive by 500+ people who had a personal, physical encounter with him. As a result of these encounters, many of Jesus' disciples reoriented their lives to teach the gospel message and died a martyr's death to demonstrate the depth of their convictions. Based on the preponderance of evidence, the most reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was raised from the dead by the power of God.
This conclusion is supported by the following truth claims.
Summary: Jesus died a violent and certain death based on the preponderance of evidence from both extra-biblical and biblical sources. These sources corroborate the claim that Jesus died by crucifixion.
This claim is supported by the following evidence.
Summary: First century Roman historian, Cornelious Tacitus, wrote of Jesus and the Christian community in Rome. He was one of the greatest Roman historians of his period. Tacitus makes explicit mention of Jesus' death by crucifixion.
Cornelius Tacitus (ca. 55-120 AD) was considered as the "greatest historian" in the ancient Roman empire.
One of Tacitus' historical publications, the Annals covering the period from 14-68 AD coincides with the life of Jesus. The Annals provides three testimonies of the Jesus and first century Christians.
The Annals (15:44) written in 115 AD recounts the great Roman fire of 64 AD during the reign of Nero. In this account, we learn from the following passages that Jesus was put to death by Pontius Pilate and suffer an excruciating death.
Interpretation 1: "But not all the relief that could come from man, not all the bounties that the prince could bestow, nor all the atonements which could be presented to the gods, availed to relieve Nero from the infamy of being believed to have ordered the conflagration, the fire of Rome. Hence to suppress the rumor, he falsely charged with the guilt, and punished Christians, who were hated for their enormities. Christus, the founder of the name, was put to death by Pontius Pilate, procurator of Judea in the reign of Tiberius: but the pernicious superstition, repressed for a time broke out again, not only through Judea, where the mischief originated, but through the city of Rome also, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their center and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind. Such indeed were the precautions of human wisdom. The next thing was to seek means of propitiating the gods, and recourse was had to the Sibylline books, by the direction of which prayers were offered to Vulcanus, Ceres, and Proserpina. Juno, too, was entreated by the matrons, first, in the Capitol, then on the nearest part of the coast, whence water was procured to sprinkle the fane and image of the goddess. And there were sacred banquets and nightly vigils celebrated by married women. But all human efforts, all the lavish gifts of the emperor, and the propitiations of the gods, did not banish the sinister belief that the conflagration was the result of an order.
Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired. [REF-TAC02]
Interpretation 2: Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilate, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their center and become popular. [REF-TAC04]
Another of his historical publications, the Histories was lost and is therefore unavailable for direct reference. Although, reference is later made to Tacitus' Histories by the Christian historians Sulpicus Severus (ca. 363-425 AD). In his writings from Chronicles (2:30.6), he wrote of Jesus and Christians.
(1) "Then Herod, a foreigner, the son of Antipater from Ascalon, he took possession of the kingdom of Judea by the senate and the Roman people begged them. this was the first king of the Jews have begun to have the external. We have now for the leaders of the coming of Christ, it was necessary to be deprived of them with their own, according to the prophecies of the prophets, that Christ will not say more to wait for. (2) Under this Eroude year of the third and 30, and Sabine Born Gold consuls, 8 Kai. January. (3) However, these things, which are contained in the Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, and from then on, he did not dare to touch, not to what the form of the dignities of things, they were cut to impair the work, the rest of the skies. (4) After the birth of the Lord had ruled for 4; For all of his time and a man of 30 years. After him, the ruler Archclaus 9 years, 20 years and had 4. (5) This ruling, in its eighteenth year, the cross was fixed, and Rubellius Fufius Geminus; how long until Stilico consul for 372 years." (Unfortunately, this was translation poorly from Latin to English by Google Translator). [REF-SS01]
In these passages, we learn several facts about Jesus:
* For more extra-biblical evidence regarding Jesus' death and resurrection, please visit the following: [HIS-EV62] [HIS-EV63] [HIS-EV66].
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Summary: The Greek second-century writer Lucian of Samosata wrote critically about Jesus. He referred to Jesus' crucifixion and veneration as a god.
Lucian of Samosata was a second-century Greek writer. In his satirical letter The Passing of Peregrine, Lucian wrote critically about Christians. This writing is the earliest reference to Jesus by a pagan writer.
The Christians, you know, worship a man (Jesus) to this day—the distinguished personage who introduced their novel rites, and was crucified on that account. You see, these misguided creatures start with the general conviction that they are immortal for all time, which explains the contempt of death and voluntary self-devotion which are so common among them; and then it was impressed on them by their original lawgiver that they are all brothers, from the moment they are converted, and deny the gods of Greece, and worship the crucified sage, and live after his laws. All this they take quite on faith, with the result that they despise all worldly goods alike, regarding them merely as common property.
From this passage, we learn that Jesus was crucified for being considered a god by his followers.
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Summary: The Jewish writing in the Talmud refer to the charges brought before Jesus and his "hanging". These charges include sorcery and apostacy which were both punishable by stoning.
The Talmud is a collection of the Jewish oral traditions handed down throughout the generations. It was compiled and inscribed by Rabbis Akiba and Meir between 135-200 AD. In addition to containing Jewish oral precepts for living, the Talmud also contains narrative accounts of historical events dating back to the Tannaitic period of 70 AD. Some of these accounts reference Jesus and the early Christian church. Because of the nature of the Talmud, these accounts are not favorable toward Jesus and Christians, and marshal anti-Christian propaganda to discredit the early Christian movement.
In Sanhedrin 43a, the Talmud records that Jesus was "hung" because no one came to his defense for charges of practicing sorcery and apostacy.
On the even of the Passover Yeshu was hanged. For forty days before the execution took place, a herald went forth and cried, 'He is going forth to be stoned because has practiced sorcery and enticed Israel to apostacy. Anyone who can say anything in his favor, let him come forward and plead on his behalf.' But since nothing was brought forward in his favor he was hanged on the even of the Passover! [REF-TAL03]
From this passage, we learn several facts about Jesus:
There are many other accounts of Jesus in the Talmud and Jewish sacred writings.
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Summary: Flavius Josephus was a Jewish historian that specialized in Jewish-Roman history of the first century. As such, his accounts provide important evidence of the life, death and resurrection of Jesus.
Flavius Josephus (ca. 37-97 AD) was a Jewish historians and scholar that specialize in Roman-Jewish history. Josephus was born into a family of priestly and royal descent and was well educated. While in Jerusalem, he became a Pharisee at age 19.
After the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD, he defected and moved to Rome to serve as an interpreter and eventually the court historians for Emperor Vespasian. He was later granted Roman citizenship by Vespasian and assume Vespasian's name "Flavious".
In Josephus' greatest historical work, Antiquities of the Jews (ca. 90-95 AD), he makes two references to Jesus.
In the second reference found in Antiquities (18.63-64), Jesus' life, ministry, crucifixion and resurrection are described.
"Now there was about this time Jesus, a wise man if it be lawful to call him a man, for he was a doer of wonders, a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure. He drew many after him both many of the Jews and many of the Gentiles. He was the Christ. When Pilate, at the suggestion of the principal men among us, had condemned him to the cross, those that loved him at the first did not forsake him, for he appeared to them alive again the third day; as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him, and the tribe of Christians, so named from him, are not extinct at this day."
Since Josephus was a Jew and a Roman citizen loyal to the Emperor Vespasian, it is unlikely he would be written this favorably about Jesus. This debated text is regarded by many scholars as having been embellished by Christians in the church during transcription. The popular position held by scholars today is that this passage was written by Josephus with some words added, deleted or embellished. In A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus, John Meier argues that the text above in BLUE was added by Christian transcribers to align the original text with the Bible [REF-JME01].
Professor Schlomo Pines from the Hebrew University in Jerusalem interpreted Josephus' 18.3.3 passage from Arabic from the tenth century. His interpretation is remarkably similar to the Latin interpretation above without the added text.
"At this time there was wise man who was called Jesus. And his conduct was good, and he was known to be virtuous. And many people from among the Jews and the other nations became his disciples. Pilate condemned him to be crucified and to die. And those who had become his disciples did not abandon his discipleship. They reported that he had appeared to them three days after his crucifixion and that he was alive; accordingly, he was perhaps the Messiah concerning whom the prophets have recounted wonders." [REF-AWH01]
In this Arabic interpretation there is a notable exclusion of the "principal men among us" which implicates the Jewish Sanhedrin. These and other excluded embellishments make the Arabic interpretation credible, and therefore more accurate.
From the first passage and the Arabic interpretation of the second passage, we learn several facts about Christians and Jesus:
This list of extra-biblical facts from Josephus regarding Jesus' death and resurrection represent the heart of the Gospel message. These facts are consistent with the biblical account of Jesus' life, death and resurrection as recorded in the Gospels. The correspondence between these facts and the biblical accounts are provided above.
(The Antiquities of the Jews by Flavius Josephus. Translated by. William Whiston, A.M. Auburn and Buffalo. John E. Beardsley. 1895)
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Summary:
Jesus death is predicted by numerous Old Testament prophets and Jesus himself on several occasions.
These prophecies are also corroborated by numerous extra-biblical writers.
Jesus' tribulations during his final hours are accurately predicted in both the Old and New Testaments [HIS-EV31].
The Old Testament prophecies related to Jesus' death are summarized in the following table. These prophecies are attested by Gospel accounts.
# | Prophecy | Old Testament Prophecy | New Testament Fulfillment |
1 | Messiah crucified with criminals | Isaiah 53:1-12 | Matthew 27:38 Mark 15:27-28 |
2 | Messiah's hands and feet pierced | Isaiah 53:5-7 Psalm 22:16 Zechariah 12:10 Zechariah 13:6 | John 20:25-27 |
3 | Messiah's bones not broken | Exodus 12:46 Psalm 34:20 Exodus 12:46 | John 19:33-36 |
4 | Soldiers pierce Messiah's side | Zechariah 12:10 | John 19:34 |
In the New Testament, Jesus predicts his death and resurrection on five separate occasions. These predictions are summarized in the following table.
# | New Testament Prophecy | Summary |
1 |
Mark 8:31 Matthew 16:21 Luke 9:22 | "The Son of Man must suffer many things and be rejected by the elders and the chief priests and the scribes and be killed." |
2 |
Mark 9:31 Matthew 17:22-23 | "The Son of Man is going to be delivered into the hands of men, and they will kill him." |
3 |
Matthew 20:17-19 Mark 10:32-34 | "The Son of Man will be delivered over to the chief priests and scribes, and they will condemn him to death and deliver him over to the Gentiles to be mocked and flogged and crucified. |
4 | Matthew 26:1-2 | "You know that after two days the Passover is coming, and the Son of Man will be delivered up to be crucified." |
5 | John 12:23-24 | "The hour has come for the Son of Man to be glorified. Truly, truly, I say to you, unless a grain of wheat falls into the earth and dies, it remains alone; but if it dies, it bears much fruit." |
During a post-resurrection appearance, Jesus enlightened his disciples that he fulfilled the Old Testament prophesies concerning his life and death.
44 Then he said to them, "These are my words that I spoke to you while I was still with you, that everything written about me in the Law of Moses and the Prophets and the Psalms must be fulfilled." 45 Then he opened their minds to understand the Scriptures, 46 and said to them, "Thus it is written, that the Christ should suffer and on the third day rise from the dead. (Luke 24:44-46).
Both the New and Old Testament prophesies are corroborated by the extra-biblical sources of Tacitus [HIS-EV61], Lucian of Samosata [HIS-EV62], Josephus [HIS-EV64], and the Jewish Talmud [HIS-EV63].
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Summary: Jesus' crucifixion was witnessed firsthand by the beloved disciple John. Many other friends and disciples attending him at the Passover celebration witnessed his death from a distance. Finally, many pilgriming Jews at the Passover were witnesses at Jesus' trial and crucifixion.
The disciples witnessed the crucifixion, death and burial of Jesus. Those who eye witnessed these events were Matthew (Matthew 27:31-60), Peter (Mark 15:16-46) and John (John 19:16-42).
We know from the Gospel of John that John eye witnessed the full crucifixion of Jesus. We learn from his account for following facts:
These accounts of John certify him as the prime witness of Jesus' death.
We learn from the gospel accounts that Jesus had a regular entourage attending him. This entourage consisted of his closest friends. This is evidenced by the following passages:
40 There were also women looking on from a distance, among whom were Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James the younger and of Joses, and Salome. 41When he was in Galilee, they followed him and ministered to him, and there were also many other women who came up with him to Jerusalem. (Mark 15:40-41)
And all his acquaintances and the women who had followed him from Galilee stood at a distance watching these things. (Luke 23:49)
We learn from these passages that many of his closest friends witnessed his death "from a distance". This group of witnesses consisted of both men and women, not just women.
Roman crucifixions were a public display of criminal justice to deter people from breaking Roman law. Therefore, Jesus trial and crucifixion were open to the public to witness.
Because Jesus was crucified during Passover, thousands of Jewish pilgrims were in Jerusalem for the celebration. A great many of these Jews would have known of Jesus because of his many tours throughout Israel during his 3-year ministry. He was extremely popular and his attendance at the Passover was greatly anticipated. This anticipation is evidenced in the following passage:
55 Now the Passover of the Jews was at hand, and many went up from the country to Jerusalem before the Passover to purify themselves. 56 They were looking for Jesus and saying to one another as they stood in the temple, "What do you think? That he will not come to the feast at all?" (John 11:55-56)
9 When the large crowd of the Jews learned that Jesus was there, they came, not only on account of him but also to see Lazarus, whom he had raised from the dead. 10 So the chief priests made plans to put Lazarus to death as well, 11 because on account of him many of the Jews were going away and believing in Jesus. 12 The next day the large crowd that had come to the feast heard that Jesus was coming to Jerusalem. 13 So they took branches of palm trees and went out to meet him, crying out, "Hosanna! Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord, even the King of Israel!" (John 12:9-13)
Hundreds of people were watching Jesus during the weeklong Passover celebration. They were expecting him to challenge Roman/Jewish authorities and elevate himself as King of the Jews. We can assume that these same people were watching Jesus during his public trial (Matthew 27:15-26) and crucifixion.
This assumption is strongly supported by Luke 24:17-24. In this passage Cleopas asks Jesus why he had not heard of all the events concerning Jesus.
Then one of them, named Cleopas, answered him, "Are you the only visitor to Jerusalem who does not know the things that have happened there in these days?" (Luke 24:18)
Cleopas was dumbfounded that Jesus did not know what transpired in Jerusalem during the Passover celebration. Cleopas proceeded to give him a detailed account of how Jesus suffered and died. Cleopas was one of the many in Jerusalem that witnessed these events. This line of evidence establishes that Jesus' death was witnessed by hundreds of people, many of whom were his closest friends and disciples.
Summary: The consensus among forensic pathologists is that Jesus suffered a violent and certain death. Jesus suffered multiple critical injuries during his trial and crucifixion. Most notable were severe hemorrhaging, hypovolemic shock, asphyxia and ultimately cardiac arrest. To assume that Jesus could walk away from the scourging and crucifixion would be contrary to the findings of modern forensic pathology.
Many theories abound regarding the crucifixion and death of Jesus. Perhaps the most popular is the swoon theory from the eighteenth century [REF-SWO01]. According to this theory, Jesus lost consciousness (swooned) while on the cross due to extreme exhaustion and then was resuscitated after a 3-day rest in the tomb.
To suggest that Jesus could survive the brutal injuries he incurred during the scourging and crucifixion is contrary to the findings of modern forensic pathology. According to physicians who assessed Jesus' physical condition during his final hours, Jesus would have certainly died from the multiple injuries inflicted on him.
Based on the latest findings in the field of forensic pathology [REF-FTZ01], [REF-EGH01], [REF-SOT05], [REF-SOT04], Jesus suffered the following injuries:
In the Garden of Gethsemane, Jesus experienced a rare condition called hematidrosis that may occur in cases of extreme anxiety caused by fear. This condition manifests as sweat that contains blood pigments (Luke 22:44). During his many hours of agony while praying in the garden, Jesus experienced extreme dehydration due to perfuse sweating (diaphoresis) and perhaps vomiting. This left Jesus exhausted before his trial and execution.
From the Gospel of accounts, we learn that Jesus was physically assaulted during his trial. He was struck in the face by temple guards' fists. According to Luke 22:63, the temple soldiers beat Jesus. Depending on the severity of the blows, this could have resulted in severe head trauma including a fractured jaw, swollen eyes and vertebrae damage to the neck.
The long thorns from the Crown of Thorns placed around Jesus' head would have irritated the trigeminal nerve which services the front half of the head, and the occipital nerve which services the back half of the head. This irritation caused a condition known as trigeminal neuralgia resulting in severe facial pain. This pain may be triggered by touch, swallowing, talking or wind. According to Matthew 27:27-31, the Roman soldiers repeatedly struck Jesus in the head with a staff. This would have caused excruciating pain throughout Jesus' face, ears and head. The thorns would have also punctured blood vessels on his scalp causing bleeding.
The Roman flagrum was used to scourge Jesus during his trial to appease the crowd of accusers. This suggests that Jesus was scourged more severely to demonstrate to the crowd that he has adequately paid for his crimes.
Roman executioners would have delivered 39+ blows to the back and sides of Jesus' torso and legs. Their goal was to administer enough fatal blows to cause the most damage to the victim's body, yet not enough blows to kill them. Roman scourging was perfected over the centuries to inflict excruciating pain while torturing their victims to near-death.
The thongs of the flagrum were equipped with metal balls (plumbatae). Together, the leather thongs and the metal balls would have severely bruised Jesus and lacerated his flesh. The injuries sustained during the scourging were extensive including:
The force exerted by the Roman flagrum on Jesus’ body was quite significant, depending on the flagrum’s length, the weight of the metal balls at the end of each thong, and the speed at which it is swung. As the flagrum is swung using an overhead motion, the momentum and kinetic energy are concentrated in the segment of the whip between the metal balls and the moving bend of the thongs, further increasing the force of impact. As the thongs of the flagrum completely uncoil, the metel balls reach maximum velocity and impact as illustrate below.
For more information on the Roman flagrum, please visit [HIS-EV53].
Roman crucifixion was a form of torture and capital punishment that was designed to produce a slow death with maximum pain and suffering. Crucifixion was usually proceeded by Roman flogging (scourging). During the crucifixion process, the victim's wrists are nailed to a cross beam (patibulum) and feet are nailed to a vertical beam (stipe). The victim is left to "hang" on the cross with most of his weight being born by his wrists. The legs were bent to prevent the victim from straightening his back to aid in breathing. Consequently, the victim dies of either heart failure due to the heavy loss of blood and/or asphyxiation due to a lack of oxygen. The injuries sustained during crucifixion were extensive. They include:
According to forensic pathologists Edwards, Gabel, and Hosmer [REF-EGH01], Jesus was clearly dead before the Roman soldier pierced his side with the sword.
Clearly, the weight of historical and medical evidence indicates that Jesus was dead before the wound to his side was inflicted and supports the traditional view that the spear, thrust between his right ribs, probably perforated not only the right lung but also the pericardium and heart and thereby ensured his death. Accordingly, interpretations based on the assumption that Jesus did not die on the cross appear to be at odds with modern medical knowledge.
The consensus among forensic pathologists is that Jesus suffered a violent and certain death. There is no way he could have walked away the tomb after a 3-day rest. Many of his injuries were fatal.
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The case for the death of Jesus can be established on the basis of extra-biblical sources alone. Historians such as Tacitus [HIS-EV61], Lucian [HIS-EV62], Josephus [HIS-EV64] and the Jewish Talmud [HIS-EV63] all corroborate the death of Jesus by crucifixion. The addition of forensic analysis of Jesus physical condition resulting from a severe scourging and crucifixion [HIS-EV65] makes it abundantly clear that Jesus was dead before the Roman soldier pierced Jesus' heart and lung with the sword. The availability of biblical evidence [HIS-EV66], [HIS-EV55] only reinforces the facts already established from extra-biblical sources.
Flogging (scourging) was a legal preliminary to every Roman execution. Crucifixion was a form of torture and capital punishment that was designed to produce a slow death with maximum pain and suffering. When extra-biblical sources state that Jesus was crucified, they imply he was also scourged. The combination of scourging and crucifixion are fatal.
Therefore, we conclude that Jesus died a violent and certain death based on the preponderance of evidence from both extra-biblical and biblical sources.
Summary: The claim that Jesus vacated his tomb is the most logical conclusion given the evidence. All counterclaims can be easily disproved.
This claim is supported by the following evidence.
Summary: Jesus' tomb was found empty by the women, Peter and John. All that remained were Jesus' burial linens. Two angels greeted the women and instructed them to seek Jesus in Galilee.
Many theories abound regarding the empty tomb of Jesus. Was Jesus' body buried in the tomb? Did Jesus' disciples steal his body? Or did Jesus rise from the dead and vacate his tomb?
The biblical accounts for the empty tomb of Jesus are found in the Gospels. These accounts indicate that Jesus' tomb was found empty on the first day of the week, the day after the Sabbath. The facts from these accounts are summarized below:
The eyewitnesses of the empty tomb were (in order) Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, Salome, John and Peter.
Summary: The Jewish leaders took every precaution to secure Jesus' tomb from grave robbers. Because the resurrection was accompanied by supernatural events, the soldiers guarding the tomb fainted and thus failed to fulfill their duties. Instead of being reprimanded, the Jewish leaders bribed to soldiers to spread a lie that Jesus' disciples came by night and stole his body.
Perhaps the most popular theory regarding the missing body of Jesus is that the disciples stole Jesus' body [REF-STO02]. This theory was originally posited by the Jewish chief priests and Pharisees as recorded in Matthew 28. Their primary objective was to discredit Jesus' disciples and put an end to the Christian movement which threatened their political and religious power. To this end, they contrived a conspiracy theory which explained the empty tomb.
The day after the crucifixion and burial, the Pharisees petitioned Pilate to secure Jesus' tomb with guards.
62 The next day, that is, after the day of Preparation, the chief priests and the Pharisees gathered before Pilate 63 and said, "Sir, we remember how that impostor said, while he was still alive, ‘After three days I will rise.’ 64 Therefore order the tomb to be made secure until the third day, lest his disciples go and steal him away and tell the people, ‘He has risen from the dead,’ and the last fraud will be worse than the first." 65 Pilate said to them, "You have a guard of soldiers. Go, make it as secure as you can." 66 So they went and made the tomb secure by sealing the stone and setting a guard. (Matthew 27:62-66)
The Pharisees were keenly aware that Jesus foretold his resurrection (Matthew 12:40, John 2:18-21). They wanted to make sure the disciples would not steal Jesus body on the third day based on Jesus' predictions. Essentially, they wanted to make sure Jesus' body remained in the tomb, so they could prove any claim of a resurrection was a farce. In response to their concern, Pilate granted the Pharisees permission to make the tomb as secure "as they knew how".
It is unclear from this passage whether Roman soldiers were used, or Jewish temple guards were used. If a Roman quaternion were used, four soldiers would have been posted on every 8-hour watch. If temple guards were used, the Pharisee could have deployed tens of guards to secure the tomb. It is also possible the Pharisees posted Jewish temple guards at the tomb to fortify the quaternion of Roman guards.
Because of Pilate's permission to make the tomb as secure "as they knew how", we can assume Jesus' tomb was heavily guarded by very capable, armed soldiers, all hours of the day and night.
During Jesus' resurrection there was a violent earthquake and an angel descended to roll away the stone stealing the tomb.
2 And behold, there was a great earthquake, for an angel of the Lord descended from heaven and came and rolled back the stone and sat on it. 3 His appearance was like lightning, and his clothing white as snow. 4 And for fear of him the guards trembled and became like dead men.
Shocked by these natural and supernatural events, the soldiers on duty fainted and became as "dead men". In Matthew 28:11 we learn that the guards awoke just before the women arrived at the tomb early Sunday morning.
11 As the women were on their way, some of the guards went into the city and told the leading priests what had happened. 12 A meeting with the elders was called, and they decided to give the soldiers a large bribe. 13 They told the soldiers, "You must say, ‘Jesus’ disciples came during the night while we were sleeping, and they stole his body.’ 14 If the governor hears about it, we’ll stand up for you so you won’t get in trouble." 15 So the guards accepted the bribe and said what they were told to say. Their story spread widely among the Jews, and they still tell it today. (Matthew 28:11-15 NLT)
From this passage we observe that some of the soldiers guarding the tomb returned to the Pharisees and reported what happened. The Pharisees did not reprimand the soldiers for failing to fulfill their duties in securing the tomb. Instead, the Pharisees decided to bribe the soldiers to perpetrate a lie that Jesus' disciples stole the body in the middle of the night. This conspiracy was well organized and spread widely among the Jews.
The lie they were instructed to perpetrate, "Jesus’ disciples came during the night while we were sleeping, and they stole his body", was lame. First of all, the soldiers would not have been sleeping if they were on duty, and if the Pharisees had secured the tomb "as best they knew how". There would have been four or more watches throughout the day and night. Even if the soldiers were sleeping, the commotion made by the disciples moving the stone would have woken the soldiers.
We assume the soldiers were not reprimanded because (1) the Pharisees believed the soldiers' account and (2) they needed the soldiers to testify about the stolen body. They had no other way to account for the broken seal on the tomb and the missing body.
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The claim that Jesus vacated his tomb after rising from the dead is a logical conclusion given the evidence. All other alternatives theories regarding the empty tomb fail the test of logical reasoning.
We examine each of the possible claims below:
All four Gospel accounts describe Jesus' burial (Matthew 27:57-66, Mark 15:42-47, Luke 23:50-61, John 19:38-42). Perhaps the most notable feature of Jesus' burial was that he was buried in the personal tomb of Joseph of Arimathea. Joseph of Arimathea, along with Nicodemus were prominent members of the Jewish Council. They were well known in Jerusalem as Jewish leaders. Joseph and Nicodemus' willingness to expose themselves as followers of Jesus caused major concern among the Pharisees. Therefore, their involvement in Jesus' burial was a high-profile event.
Furthermore, the official Roman seal applied to the stone authenticated that Jesus was in fact buried in the tomb.
If Jesus' body were still in the tomb when the disciples claimed he had been raised from the dead, the Pharisee would have exhumed Jesus' body and paraded it throughout the streets of Jerusalem to prove Jesus was dead.
Also, the seal on the stone would have still been intact offering further proof that no one had tampered with the tomb.
To claim that the disciples stole Jesus' body is unreasonable. Based on the Gospels accounts, the disciples did not really understand Jesus' predictions about being raised (John 20:9, John 2:22). In addition, the women did not understand his predictions (Luke 24:6-8). It is unlikely they would risk their lives for something they did not completely understand.
Even if they did understand, how would they benefit from stealing Jesus' body? We can assume that the same Jewish authorities that condemned Jesus would have uncovered the disciples' deception and sought their execution as well.
We learn in John 20:19 that the disciples at the time of Jesus' burial were cowering behind locked doors. It is fair to say that the disciples were not taking any risks. They feared for the lives and the lives of their families.
The most reasonable conclusion is that Jesus rose from the dead and vacated his tomb. This conclusion is supported by the following facts:
According to first century Jewish law, a woman's testimony was not admissible in court. Only male testimony was admissible. According to the Gospel accounts women were the first to discover the empty tomb. For the Gospel writers to include the women’s testimony, they would have had to scrutinize the testimony to ensure it was authentic. The women’s testimony was corroborated, in part, by Peter and John's testimony who also discovered the empty tomb and made many of the same observations.
Because the Pharisees and Romans did not reprimand the soldiers charged with guarding the tomb, they believed their account of the empty tomb was true. Their plan to bribe the soldiers and spread a lie is a clear indication that they wanted to falsify the facts of the empty tomb.
Moreover, there is no record of the Pharisees investigating or prosecuting the disciples in connection with the missing body. This is another indication that the Pharisees did not want the truth of Jesus' resurrection to surface because it would have nullified their conspiracy theory.
Peter's resurrection claims in the Book of Acts, Paul's credal statements in 1 Corinthians 15 and Mark's burial narrative in Mark 15:42-47 were consistent with Jesus' burial. Scholars date these claims, statements and accounts to be within seven years of Jesus' burial.
Using biblical criticism, scholars make the following observations about the burial narrative in the Gospel of Mark [REF-WLC03]:
This line of reasoning suggests that Jesus vacated his tomb after being risen from the dead. It is unreasonable to suggest that the disciples stole Jesus' body.
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Summary: Jesus' resurrection was observed by 500+ people based on trustworthy accounts. Resurrection claims were made publicly by Peter, Paul and others within 0-7 years after the actual resurrection. Given that these claims are coincident with the resurrection event, these claims are free of legendary embellishments and distortions. Hallucination and delusion theories cannot discredit the reality of Jesus' resurrection. To assume that 500+ eyewitnesses hallucinated and had the same observation regarding Jesus' resurrected state is absurd. The evidence strongly suggestions that Jesus was raised from the dead with a physical and immortal body.
This claim is supported by the following evidence.
Summary: We observe from the New Testament that Jesus was resurrected with a human body that proved immortal. He appeared to a great number of people, many of whom were alive when Paul and Peter made claims of a physical, bodily resurrection.
Many theories abound regarding the post-resurrection appearances of Jesus. One theory that emerged during the nineteenth century was the hallucination theory [REF-HAL01]. This theory alleges that people merely experienced visions of Jesus after his death. Proponents argue this was the natural response for Jesus' followers who were in a state of bewilderment and depression. This theory is in stark contrast to the teaching of the New Testament [REF-HAB04], [REF-HAL02].
The timeline of Jesus' appearances is summarized in the following table.
# | New Testament Reference |
Time | To Whom | Location |
1 | Mark 16:9-11 John 20:11-18 |
Resurrection Sunday | Mary Magdalene | Golgotha, Jerusalem |
2 | Matthew 28:9-10 | Resurrection Sunday | Other Women | Jerusalem |
3 | Matthew 28:11-15 | Resurrection Sunday | Two Disciples | Road to Emmaus |
4 | John 12:23-24 1 Corinthians 15:5 Acts 2:32 Acts 3:15 Acts 2:32 Acts 10:41-42 |
Resurrection Sunday | Eleven Disciples, Peter Present | Jerusalem |
5 | Mark 16:14 Luke 24:36-43 John 20:19-25 |
Resurrection Sunday | Ten Disciples, Thomas Absent | Jerusalem |
6 | John 20:26-31 1 Corinthians 15:5 |
One Week Later | Eleven Disciples, Thomas Present | Jerusalem |
7 | John 21:1-25 | Weeks Later | Appearance to the Seven Disciples Fishing | Sea of Tiberias |
8 | Matthew 28:16-20 Mark 16:15-18 |
Weeks Later | Eleven Disciples | Mountain in Galilee |
9 | 1 Corinthians 15:6 Acts 13:31 |
Weeks Later | 500+ Disciples | Galilee Surrounding Area |
10 | 1 Corinthians 15:7 | Weeks Later | James, the Brother of Jesus | Unknown |
10 | Luke 24:44-49 Acts 1:3-8 |
Weeks Later | Disciples | Jerusalem |
12 | Mark 16:19-20 Luke 24:50-53 Acts 1:9-12 |
40th Day Jesus' Ascension |
Disciples | Mount of Olives, Jerusalem |
13 | 1 Corinthians 15:8 | After Jesus' Ascension | Paul | Unknown |
These post-resurrection appearances are summarized by Luke in the Book of Acts:
During the forty days after he suffered and died, he appeared to the apostles from time to time, and he proved to them in many ways that he was actually alive. (Acts 1:3 NLT)
Even though Jesus appeared to different people in a variety of locations and contexts, their testimonies corroborate common truths regarding Jesus. It is unanimous from these testimonies that Jesus' resurrected body was physical.
Although many have disputed the nature of Jesus' resurrected body. Was his resurrected body physical or was it merely spiritual? Did he really rise from the dead as a human being?
In 1 Corinthians 15:42-44 , Paul teaches that the resurrected bodies of believers are both physical and immortal. This is exactly what we observe in the resurrected body of Jesus. In the preceding passages, Jesus resurrected body exhibits the following characteristics:
From the many of appearances recorded in the New Testament, Jesus appeared to a wide cross section of people in the Jerusalem and Galilee areas. He made both private and public appearances. This preponderance of evidence dispels the idea that Jesus appearances were mere hallucinations or visions.
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Summary: While the Gospel accounts of the resurrection were written and circulated in the latter half of the first century, the resurrection claims of Paul and Peters are dated as early as 30-35 AD. The claims were coincident with the resurrection event.
The timeliness of the resurrection accounts has been called into question. When were the resurrection claims publicly made? Were the eyewitnesses of the resurrection still alive to attest to these claims?
In the Book of Acts, we learn that the Christian church began in Jerusalem and then spread to Samaria, Asia Minor and Europe. Peter and Paul were the principal leaders of the early church. They preached to thousands of people both Jew and Gentile.
The central tenet of their teaching was redemption through the death and resurrection of Jesus, God's appointed Messiah. Peter and Paul repeatedly made the claim publicly that Jesus was raised from the dead, and that the many eyewitnesses who were still living could attest to this claim.
These claims were made and attested as early as 30-35 AD.
Paul's creedal passage found in 1 Corinthians 15 attests to the fact that Jesus was raised on the third day according to the New and Old Testament scriptures. This passage in considered a fundamental teaching of the early church because of its rhetorical form and cadence [REF-CVM01], Aramaic language and lack of Pauline terms [REF-HAB02]. Creeds are concise and easy to memorize, thus assuring accuracy in oral transmission.
3For I delivered to you as of first importance what I also received: that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures, 4that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the Scriptures, 5and that he appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve. 6Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have fallen asleep. 7Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles. 8Last of all, as to one untimely born, he appeared also to me. (1 Corinthians 15:3-8)
Although Paul's letter to the Corinthians was written in 53-56 AD, this creed originated at a much earlier date. Paul's testimony implies that he had received this oral tradition regarding Jesus' post-resurrection appearances from another. It is likely he received this tradition from Peter during his visit to Jerusalem no later than 36 AD recorded in Galatians 1:18. This would then date the formation of this oral tradition to within 5-7 years of the crucifixion and resurrection or A.D 35-37. Originating with Peter or another eyewitness certifies the elements of the tradition as established facts.
In this passage, Paul challenges the Corinthians to confirm the resurrection with the many eyewitness who were still alive. Essentially, he is saying "if you do not believe me, ask these people". The testimony of the eyewitnesses was central to the validity of this creed.
In the emerging church of the first century, Peter was a central figure. Peter's preaching was widespread in Jerusalem and the surrounding areas. His primary line of defense was the resurrection of Jesus.
Table 1 contains the resurrection claims from the Book of Acts and the approximate date of each claim.
Acts Reference |
Date AD |
Claim |
Acts 1:3 | 30-33 | He presented himself alive to them after his suffering by many proofs, appearing to them during forty days and speaking about the kingdom of God. |
Acts 2:32 | 30-33 | You killed the Author of life, whom God raised from the dead. To this we are witnesses. |
Acts 10:40-41 | 40 | 40but God raised him on the third day and made him to appear, 41not to all the people but to us who had been chosen by God as witnesses, who ate and drank with him after he rose from the dead. |
Acts 13:31 | 48-49 | And over a period of many days he appeared to those who had gone with him from Galilee to Jerusalem. They are now his witnesses to the people of Israel. |
As with Paul, Peter calls into evidence the testimony of the eyewitnesses. In additional, he claims that Jesus provided many other proofs to the people. In these texts he implies that the evidence is more than sufficient in demonstrating Jesus has risen from the dead.
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Summary: The teachings of apostolic fathers Clement, Polycarp and Ignatius from the first and second centuries are consistent with the original teachings of Jesus disciples. This clearly demonstrates the accuracy of the oral and written traditions of the early church.
The apostolic fathers of the first and second centuries were appointed as leaders the early Christian church. According to church history, many of them studied under one of Jesus' original disciples. Before New Testament writings were available and circulated, the apostolic fathers used the practice of oral tradition to accurately convey the teachings of the original disciples. In fact, the formal literary structures that enabled oral tradition were used by Jesus' disciples to memorize his teachings and ensure the subsequent written accounts were accurate.
To demonstrate the accuracy of oral tradition or transmission, the following apostolic fathers are cited.
After the martyrdom of Peter and Paul at Rome, Clement (c. 30-100) became the bishop of the church in Rome [REF-CLE01]. He was likely Paul's co-laborer to the Philippians (Philippians 4:3) and a disciple of Peter.
Clement wrote to the early church in Corinth around 95 AD [REF-CEL05]. He states that Jesus' disciples were fully assured by Jesus' resurrection, so much so that they boldly proclaimed the resurrection with confidence.
Having therefore received their (disciples) orders and being fully assured by the resurrection of our Lord Jesus Christ, and established in the word of God, with full assurance of the Holy Ghost, they went forth proclaiming that the kingdom of God was at hand. 1 Clement 42:3 (J. B. Lightfoot translation) [REF-CEL04]
Polycarp (c. 69-155 AD) was the bishop of Smyrna. He was a disciple of John as recorded by Irenaeus, Tertullian and Saint Jerome [REF-POL01].
As recorded in the Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians around 110 AD [REF-CEL05], Polycarp states that God the Father raised Jesus from the dead, so the Philippians could be steadfast in their faith.
The steadfast root of your faith which was famed from primitive times abideth until now and beareth fruit unto our Lord Jesus Christ, who endured to face even death for our sins, whom God raised, having loosed the pangs of Hades; on whom (Polycarp 1:2)
Polycarp 9:2 Being persuaded that all these ran not in vain but in faith and righteousness, and that they are in their due place in the presence of the Lord, with whom also they suffered. For they loved not the present world, but Him that died for our sakes and was raised by God for us. (Polycarp 9:2)
Now may the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, and the eternal High-priest Himself the Son of God Jesus Christ, build you up in faith and truth, and in all gentleness and in all avoidance of wrath and in forbearance and long suffering and in patient endurance and in purity; and may He grant unto you a lot and portion among His saints, and to us with you, and to all that are under heaven, who shall believe on our Lord and God Jesus Christ and on His Father that raised him from the dead. (Polycarp 12:2)
Ignatius (c. 35-107 AD) who was bishop of the church in Antioch in Syria [REF-IGN01]. He was likely a disciple of Peter.
Ignatius writes to the church in Smyrna on the way to his martyrdom around 110 AD [REF-CEL06]. He states that Jesus was raised "in the flesh", and that the disciples touched Jesus and eat with him.
3:1 For I know and believe that He was in the flesh even after the resurrection; 3:2 and when He came to Peter and his company, He said to them, Lay hold and handle me, and see that I am not a demon without body. And straightway they touched Him, and they believed, being joined unto His flesh and His blood. Wherefore also they despised death, nay they were found superior to death. 3:3 And after His resurrection He (both) ate with them and drank with them as one in the flesh, though spiritually He was united with the Father. (Smyrnaens 3:1-3)
From these accounts, we learn that the teachings of Clement, Polycarp and Ignatius were consistent with the teachings of Jesus' disciples. The facts of the resurrection were not embellished nor were new facts added. This clearly demonstrates the accuracy of the oral and written traditions of the first and second century writers.
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The resurrection of Jesus is perhaps the most disputed claim of the Christian church. As Paul concludes in 1 Corinthians 15:17, if Jesus has not been raised from the dead, the Christian faith is futile and without hope. The core doctrines of the Christian faith rest entirely on the truth of the resurrection.
The key objections raised against the resurrection are (1) the trustworthiness of the resurrection accounts and (2) the reliability of those who eye witnessed the resurrection.
Many have attributed the resurrection accounts to the work of legend or outright lies perpetrated by the disciples. Since the Gospels of Matthew (ca. 55-80 AD), Mark (ca. 50-70 AD), Luke (ca. 59-90 AD) and John (ca. 90 AD) were written and circulated in the latter half of the first century, several years would have elapsed between the crucifixion and the availability of these gospels. Could not legend have crept into the church to account for the missing body and resurrection of Jesus? How are the resurrection claims attested during the intervening years between 30-60 AD?
According to historians who study myths and legends, the practice of oral traditions [REF-JMU01] is well safeguarded with formal literary structures that aid in memorization [REF-KEB01] [REF-CAR01].
This can be readily observed in the Pauline creed found in 1 Corinthians 15:3-7. This passage is narrative and progressive in nature, containing repeated phrases. Because of its length, it can be committed to memory in a matter of minutes.
3Christ died for our sins, just as the Scriptures said.
4He was buried, and he was raised from the dead on the third day, just as the Scriptures said.
5He was seen by Cephas (Peter) and then by the Twelve.
6After that, he was seen by more than 500 of his followers at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have died.
7Then he was seen by James and later by all the apostles.
Given the care and respect the Jews had for the transmission of the Old Testament scriptures, we can only assume that the same care and respect was given to the transmission for most important teaching of the Christian faith - the resurrection of Jesus.
A. N. Sherwin-White, a Greek and Roman historian [REF-ASW01], states that Greek and Roman history around the time of Jesus is biased one or two generation, or even centuries from the time of the event. Despite this bias, historians can reconstruction the actual historical events.
In the case of the New Testament which was written in the latter half of the first century, the 20-40 years that elapsed between the resurrection and the earliest writings is insufficient time for legend to form, and for additions, deletions and embellishments.
The reliability of the eyewitnesses relies on their ability to ascertain what they saw and experienced. One objection that gain popularity during the twentieth century was the hallucination theory. This theory claims that the eyewitnesses either experienced hallucinations or delusions of Jesus. These visions were based on the eyewitnesses' need to reconnect with Jesus due to extreme confusion and depression.
The following explanations discredit the Theory of Hallucinations:
To suggest that 500+ people who experienced Jesus resurrected body were delusional or psychotic is absurd. For all 500+ people to have the same exact delusions or visual/audible hallucinations is improbable.
The common experience shared by each eyewitness is proof that Jesus resurrection occurred.
Here are the claims drawn from the evidence cited in [HIS-EV36], [HIS-EV68] and [HIS-EV69]:
Therefore, we conclude that Jesus was raised from the dead with an immortal, physical body.
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Summary: Jesus' disciples lived with him for three years and witnessed thousands of miracles. However, their lives were marked with doubt and disbelief. It was not until the disciples encountered Jesus in the flesh after his resurrection that they believed. Their dramatic conversion is only explainable by the resurrection of Jesus.
This claim is supported by the following evidence.
Summary: The disciples' cowardice turned to boldness after Jesus' resurrection. Their transformation is perhaps the most convincing evidence for the resurrection.
Even though that the disciples spent three years witnessing Jesus' miracles, they were afraid when the Jewish authorities arrested Jesus. During Jesus' week of passion, they were notably absent from the Gospel narratives.
What would cause the disciples' cowardice to be replaced with boldness? What can explain this marked difference in their lives? One minute they are fearing for their lives because of Jesus, the next minute they are putting their lives at extreme risk for Jesus.
Perhaps the most convincing evidence for Jesus' resurrection is the dramatic conversion of his disciples. Because of encountering the risen Jesus, his disciple developed a boldness that was otherwise unexplainable. This boldness was exhibited by fearless preaching, beatings, imprisonment and ultimately martyrdom.
Between the time of Jesus' arrest and the time Jesus appeared to the disciples in the locked room, the disciples are absent from the Gospel narratives. The only exceptions are the accounts of Peter's denial and John at the foot of the cross.
The disciples were very well known by the Pharisees. They assumed that the Pharisees would arrest them next and perhaps put them to death. They were fearful for not only themselves but also for their families. Essentially, the disciple abandoned Jesus and went into hiding.
The following passages highlight their fear:
Jesus warned the disciples in advance that they will experience a period of sorrow. But, after his passion, their sorrow will be turned to joy when they realize that Jesus was raised to eternal life.
16"A little while, and you will see me no longer; and again a little while, and you will see me." 17So some of his disciples said to one another, "What is this that he says to us, ‘A little while, and you will not see me, and again a little while, and you will see me’; ... 20Truly, truly, I say to you, you will weep and lament, but the world will rejoice. You will be sorrowful, but your sorrow will turn into joy. (John 16:16-22)
The disciples did not belief that Jesus was raised from the dead. This is confirmed in the Gospels of Luke and Mark.
10It was Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Mary the mother of James, and several other women who told the apostles what had happened. 11But the story sounded like nonsense to the men, so they didn’t believe it. (Luke 24:10-11 NLT)
Afterward he appeared to the eleven themselves as they were reclining at table, and he rebuked them for their unbelief and hardness of heart, because they had not believed those who saw him after he had risen. (Mark 16:14)
Only after the disciples encountered the risen Jesus did they believe.
Their unbelief is epitomized by the disciple Thomas. According to the Gospel of John, Thomas disregarded the resurrection testimony of the other disciples and audaciously replied, "I won’t believe it unless I see the nail wounds in his hands, put my fingers into them, and place my hand into the wound in his side." (John 20:27)
After Jesus appeared to Thomas bodily, Thomas believed. Jesus reproached Thomas by saying, "You believe because you have seen me. Blessed are those who believe without seeing me." (John 20:29)
After Jesus' resurrection, the disciples truly understand Jesus' mission, and their mission (Luke 24:44-49). He explained to them how he was to be sacrificed for the sin of the world, and how they were to spread this Good News to all nations. He also promised that they would receive power from God the Holy Spirit to accomplish their mission.
"You will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you, and you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the earth." (Acts 1:8)
From that moment on, the disciples spoke boldly. They were arrested, beaten, imprisoned and finally martyred. The works of the disciples and the Holy Spirit are recorded in the Book of Acts.
According to first and second century writings and traditions, all of Jesus' disciples were persecuted and martyred for their faith [REF-FOX01] [REF-BAR02]. The following tables identify the method of persecution and martyrdom suffered by each of the 11 remaining apostles and other prominent disciples of the early church.
Name | Other Names |
Martyred (AD) |
How Died |
Place | Country |
Simon Peter | Cephas (Rock) | 64 | Crucified | Rome | Italy |
James Son of Zebedee | Boanerges (Son of Thunder) | 44 | Beheaded | Jerusalem | Palestine |
John Boanerges | The Beloved Disciple | 96 | Boiled in Oil | Ephesus | Turkey |
Andrew | Andrea | 69 | Crucified | Patras | Greece |
Philip | - | 60 | Hanged | Hierapolis | Turkey |
Bartholomew | Nathanael, Son of Ptolemy | 68 | Crucified | Albana | Armenia |
Matthew | Levi | 70 | Stabbed | Nubia | Ethiopia |
Thomas | Didymus (Twin) | 82 | Speared | Mylapore | India |
James the Less | The Younger; Son of Alphaeus | 54 | Stoned | Jerusalem | Palestine |
Judas Thaddeus | Lebbaeus; Son of James; Addai | 66 | Clubbed | Ardaze | Turkey |
Simon Zelotes | The Zealot; The Canaanean | 61 | Crucified | Suanir | Iran |
Name | Other Names |
Martyred (AD) |
How Died |
Place | Country |
Matthias | Mattaniah | 64 | Burned | Axum | Ethiopia |
Paul | Saul of Tarsus | 64 | Beheaded | Rome | Italy |
Barnabas | Joseph; Son of Consolation | 61 | Stoned | Salamis | Cyprus |
Mark the Evangelist | John Mark | 68 | Trampled | Alexandria | Egypt |
James | The Just, Brother of the Lord | 62 | Stoned | Jerusalem | Palestine |
Luke the Evangelist | The Good Physician | 91 | Hanged | Rome | Italy |
Timothy | Bishop of Ephesus | 90 | Beheaded | Ephesus | Turkey |
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Summary: Because of Paul's encounter with the risen Jesus, Paul was fundamentally transformed from a Jewish prosecutor to a Christian apostle. His journey can only be explained by the appearance and direct revelation of Jesus.
Unlike the disciples, Paul stood in direct opposition to the Christian movement. His chief aim was to eradicate the Christian movement by persecuting its leaders. He was the most formidable enemy of the early Christian church.
Paul credentials are recorded in Philippians 3:5-6 and Acts 22:3.
Paul was educated by Gamaliel to zealously teach and enforce the Old Testament Law [REF-GAM01] [REF-GAM02]. He was a Pharisee, a circumcised Jew, born in Tarsus in Cilicia, a Roman citizen, and fluent in Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek. As a Pharisee, he was proactive in opposing heretical doctrines that threatened Judaism.
Paul considered himself a Hebrew of Hebrews. He claimed to be righteous and blameless under the Jewish Law. As a member of the Jewish elite, Paul had all the important credentials!
According to Acts 1-2 and Acts 22:4-5, Paul was granted permission from the high priest to arrest Christians in Damascus and bring them bound to Jerusalem to face charges of blasphemy.
1Saul, still breathing threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord, went to the high priest 2and asked him for letters to the synagogues at Damascus, so that if he found any belonging to the Way, men or women, he might bring them bound to Jerusalem. (Acts 1-2)
During his campaign to arrest and prosecute Christians, Paul approved the stoning of Christians. This is the case with Stephen in Acts 7:54-8:1 and Acts 22:20. Stephen was dragged outside the city of Jerusalem and stoned for his profession of faith in Jesus. In these passages we learn that Paul approved and oversaw the stoning of Stephen. The leaders laid their coats at Paul's feet acknowledging that Paul was the one in authority.
Because of the martyrdom of Stephen, a great wave of persecution began in Jerusalem. We learn from Acts 8:1-3 that:
Because of the letters from the high priest, we can assume that Paul enlisted a great number of church leaders in Damascus to arrest Christians. We can further assume that a great number of Christians were impacted by Paul's campaign.
On Paul's journey to Damascus, Jesus himself confronts Paul and accuses Paul of indirectly persecuting him (Acts 9:4-5).
Paul's confrontation with Jesus is recorded in Acts 9.
3Now as he went on his way, he approached Damascus, and suddenly a light from heaven shone around him. 4And falling to the ground, he heard a voice saying to him, "Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting me?" 5And he said, "Who are you, Lord?" And he said, "I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting. 6But rise and enter the city, and you will be told what you are to do." 7The men who were traveling with him stood speechless, hearing the voice but seeing no one. (Acts 9:3-7)
This account is also reiterated by Paul in Acts 22:6-11.
6"As I was on my way and drew near to Damascus, about noon a great light from heaven suddenly shone around me. 7And I fell to the ground and heard a voice saying to me, ‘Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting me?’ 8And I answered, ‘Who are you, Lord?’ And he said to me, ‘I am Jesus of Nazareth, whom you are persecuting.’ 9Now those who were with me saw the light but did not understand the voice of the one who was speaking to me. (Acts 22:6-9)
We learn from these passages the Paul was confronted by a great light and a voice. Paul was able to understand the voice as being the voice of Jesus of Nazareth. However, the men with him heard the voice and but could not understand what was being said. The men were astounded at what they experienced. It is clear from this account that both Paul and his companions witnessed a supernatural event.
After this confrontation with Jesus, Paul was taken to Damascus, and then later traveled to Arabia for intense training. For three years Paul was likely visited by Jesus (Galatians 1:17-18). Jesus revealed the Gospel to Paul (Galatians 1:11-12). Because he received the Gospel as a direct revelation from Jesus, as did the other disciples, he qualifies as an apostle of Jesus.
Paul's conversion was dramatic. He had a profound encounter with the risen Jesus. As a result, he completely reoriented his life around proclaiming the Gospel of Jesus. This represented a fundamental shift from being a Jewish Pharisee to a Christian apostle.
During Paul's ministry he suffered persecution from the Jews and the Romans (2 Corinthians 11:16-33, Acts 16:37, Acts 9:16). Paul willingly subjected himself to these sufferings because of his commitment to Jesus and the cause of the Gospel.
After years of serving the Christian church, Paul was martyred in Rome. His martyrdom is attested by multiple sources including [REF-HAB02]:
According to Tertullian, Paul was beheaded by Nero.
Paul is beheaded has been written in their own blood. And if a heretic wishes his confidence to rest upon a public record, the archives of the empire will speak, as would the stones of Jerusalem. We read the lives of the Caesars: At Rome Nero was the first who stained with blood the rising faith. (Scorpiace 15) [REF-CEL07].
Tertullian's account indicates that if there is any doubt regarding the martyrdom of Paul, people could check with in Roman archives for corroborating evidence.
Paul's journey from Jewish prosecutor to Christian apostle can only be explained by the appearance and direct revelation of the risen Jesus.
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Summary: There was a marked change in James, the brother of Jesus, after Jesus' resurrection. He was dramatically transformed from a skeptic to a prominent leader in the Jerusalem church. His journey from skeptic to believer can only be explained by the appearance of the risen Jesus.
Being raised in the same household does not guarantee that siblings will understand and get along with each other. Such is the case with Jesus and his brothers James, Joseph, Simon and Judas (Matthew 13:55).
According to John 7:1-5, Jesus' brothers completely misunderstood the purpose of his life and ministry. For them, it was all about Jesus rising to fame through his ability to perform miracles. They wanted to show him off to the crowds in Judea as a miracle worker, even at the expense of Jesus' safety. They wanted to exploit Jesus' power, perhaps for their own gain.
John parenthetically asserts that Jesus' brothers did not really believe he was the Messiah.
For not even his brothers believed in him. (John 7:5)
They merely saw him as a rabbi who was blessed by God to perform miracles.
Prior to Jesus' crucifixion, James and his brothers were notably absent from the biblical narrative except for the John 7:1-9 and Mark 3:21 passages. In these passages we learn that James and his brothers were unbelieving and cynical. They repeatedly challenged Jesus' motives and actions.
We can assume from these accounts, that friction developed between Jesus and his brothers. This may have led to an estrangement. This is most evident at Jesus crucifixion.
According to John 19:26-27, James and his brothers were not present at the foot of the cross to attend Mary, their mother, during her time of agony. Only John the beloved disciple was present. Moreover, John was commissioned by Jesus to care for Mary, not James or the brothers. The utter lack of family responsibility on the part of James and the brother would have been regarded as dishonoring and disgraceful.
What would have caused James and his brother Jude to believe? Certainly, Jesus' miracles and fulfillment of Old Testament prophecies were not enough to convince them.
Based on the writings of Paul and the apostolic fathers, James believed and rose to a very influential position in the early Christian church. In 1 Corinthians 15, Paul mentions James as one who saw the risen Jesus in the flesh.
Then Jesus appeared to James, then to all the apostles. (1 Corinthians 15:7)
Paul likely learned of James’ conversion when he visited James on his return from Arabia (Galatians 1:19).
Perhaps the reason Paul explicitly mentions James in the creed is because James was already a prominent leader in the church at the time the creed originated. This would have placed James' elevation to leader of the Jerusalem church council to within five years after the crucifixion. Mentioning James provided the rationale for his belief and call of leadership in the church.
James is referred to as a pillar in the church (Galatians 2:9). He was also a pious Jew and who strictly observed the Old Testament law. (Galatians 2:11-13, Acts 15:19-21). He was called James the Just by apostolic father Clement of Alexandra [REF-CEL09] and second century chronicler Hegesippus [REF-CEL08].
According to church history, James was martyred for his faith. The apostolic father Clement of Alexandra attests that James was beaten and stoned to death. Other references to James' martyrdom include [REF-HAB02]:
James' martyrdom was attested by both Christian and non-Christian sources.
As with other Christian martyrs, James was convinced that Jesus rose from the dead.
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Summary: An estimated 69.4 million Christians have been martyred since the first century AD. Contrary to reason, the number of Christian martyrs is increasing each year. This suggests that Christian commitment is not directly tied to a physical encounter with the risen Jesus, but rather the result of the power of God the Holy Spirit confirming the reality of God in Christians' lives.
Martyrdom is the ultimate demonstration of solidarity. It is a measure of conviction that surpasses human understanding and reason. This is precisely the plight of millions of Christians throughout the ages.
According to statisticians Barrett and Johnson [REF-BAR01] [REF-BAR02], 69.4 million Christians have willingly submitted themselves to martyrdom since the time of Jesus. In fact, an estimated one million Christians have been martyred in the last decade only. The trend of Martyrdom has increased year after year. In an age of religious freedom and tolerance, this seem counter intuitive.
This implies that peoples' convictions are not directly tied to an eyewitness encounter with Jesus. So, what explains this level of increasing commitment? Is it merely the result of human willpower? Or is there something else that empowers this level of commitment?
Jesus, before he ascended, promised that Christians would receive power from God the Holy Spirit to live in a hostile world.
"You will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you, and you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the earth." (Acts 1:8)
What Jesus is describing is a power that defies human reason and can only be experienced spiritually. It is a power that continually confirms the reality of God in a Christian's life.
Clearly, this power is not empirically observable in the physical world. Rather, it is observable in the lives of Christian martyrs. Their undivided commitment is proof that God the Holy Spirit is real and has been active in the world throughout the ages.
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The phrase "seeing is believing" is human nature. Often, we are not convinced of something until we have witnessed concrete evidence or proof. Such is the case with Jesus' disciples and first century Christians.
The disciples initially responded to the news of Jesus' resurrection with utter doubt and disbelief (Luke 24:10-11 NLT). They did not believe the testimony of the women who returned from the empty tomb. They regarded the women's report as nonsense.
Jesus predicted his death and resurrection on five separate occasions [HIS-EV66]. Also see Matthew 12:40 and John 2:18-21. It seems that living with Jesus for three years and witnessing thousands of miracles was not enough proof that Jesus was a person of his word. It's no wonder Jesus rebuked them for their unbelief (Mark 16:14). So, what event caused them to believe and commit their lives to spreading the Good News of salvation through Jesus?
It was not until the disciples encountered Jesus in the flesh that they believed. This was a defining moment, a water shed event.
As for the church throughout the ages, it is the original testimony of the disciples and the power of the Holy Spirit that confirms the trustworthiness of the resurrection account [HIS-EV59].
Therefore, the dramatic conversion of Jesus' disciples and Christians throughout the ages is only explainable by the resurrection of Jesus.
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Summary: The phenomenal events surrounding Jesus' passion support the supernatural resurrection of Jesus. While these events are circumstantial, they strongly support the claim of Jesus' resurrection because of their number, independence and diversity.
This claim is supported by the following evidence.
Summary: Cataclysmic events occurred at the time of Jesus' crucifixion. These included earthquakes and darkness. Extra-biblical writers agree that these events were widespread throughout the regions of Israel and Asia Minor, and were extraordinary in nature. This confirms the biblical accounts recorded in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke.
Cataclysmic events occurred at the time of Jesus' crucifixion. These events are cited by both biblical and extra-biblical writers. The common facts found in these accounts include widespread darkness that lasted for three hours and severe earthquakes that were felt for hundreds of miles in the regions of Israel and Asia Minor.
These events are recorded in three of the four Gospels.
45Now from the sixth hour there was darkness over all the land until the ninth hour. ... 51And behold, the curtain of the temple was torn in two, from top to bottom. And the earth shook, and the rocks were split. (Matthew 27:45-54, also see Luke 23:44-46, Mark 15:33-37)
The common theme in these passages is the prolonged darkness that accompanied Jesus' crucifixion.
The Gospel accounts are corroborated by Thallus the Greek historian. Thallus wrote his historical account the Trojan Wars in his histories of the Eastern Mediterranean world written in 52 AD.
The works of Thallus are no longer available in their original form. However, Thallus' original works were referenced by Sextus Julius Africanus (cs. 160-240) in his historical works entitled History of the World written in 221 AD [REF-THA01].
On the whole world there pressed a most fearful darkness; and the rocks were rent by an earthquake, and many places in Judea and other districts were thrown down. This darkness Thallus, in the third book of his History calls, as appears to me without reason, an eclipse of the sun. cs. (221 AD)
In this passage, Africanus took exception to Thallus's explanation of the super-natural phenomena of the earth shaking and darkness as a mere eclipse. He argued that an eclipse could not have occurred during a Jewish Passover celebration during the time of a full moon.
Regardless of Thallus' terminology, he clearly states that there was a "most fearful darkness" and that this darkness covered the "whole world". This is consistent with the gospel accounts of a darkness that covered "all the land" (Matthew 27:45).
The Gospel accounts are also corroborated by Phlegon of Tralles. Phlegon was a prolific Greek historian. He wrote his Book of Chronicles around 137 AD.
Phlegon's chronicle of the 202nd OLYMPIAD (202.2-3) was translated by Jerome [REF-PHL01].
"Phlegon, in the 13th book of his admirable account of the Olympiads, writes about this as follows: "In the fourth year of the 202nd Olympiad, there was an eclipse of the sun, greater than any which had occurred previously. At the sixth hour, the day became as dark as night, and the stars were visible in the sky. An earthquake in Bithynia destroyed many buildings in Nicaea." Proof that the passion of our Saviour happened in this year is provided by the gospel of John, who write that our Lord taught for three years after the 15th year of Tiberius."
Phlegon's narrative of the darkness and earthquake is notably quoted by Origen of Alexandria (182-254 AD), in Against Celsus (Book II, Chap. XXXIII & XXXV) [REF-ECW01], Eusebius of Caesarea (264 – 340) in his Chronicles and Origen in his Contra Celsum. Many other extra-biblical authors refer to Phlegon's description of these events.
These events recorded by Phlegon likely occurred during Olympiad 202.2 from 29-33 AD [REF-PHL02]. What was unusual about Phlegon's account is that the 202nd Olympiad was held in Bithynia which is approximately 800 miles from Jerusalem. This implies that the darkness and earthquakes were widespread throughout the regions of Israel and Asia Minor.
Tertullian (155-240 AD) was an early Christian writer of the second century. He recounts the events of Jesus' crucifixion as accompanied by a withdrawal of day light.
He (Jesus) exhibited many notable signs, by which His death was distinguished from all others. At His own free-will, He with a word dismissed from Him His spirit, anticipating the executioner's work. In the same hour, too, the light of day was withdrawn, when the sun at the very time was in his meridian blaze. Those who were not aware that this had been predicted about Christ, no doubt thought it an eclipse. You yourselves have the account of the world-portent still in your archives. (Tertullian, Apologia 21) [REF-ECW02]
Tertullian is arguing that those who were unaware of the prediction of this prolonged crucifixion darkness were attempting to explain away the darkness as being a normal solar eclipse. Tertullian refers to this darkness as a "notable sign" or wonder of Jesus.
From these narratives we establish the following common facts concerning the events surrounding Jesus' crucifixion:
While an eclipse of the sun was cited by Thallus and Phlegon as a possible cause of the darkness, the real cause remains a mystery. Many other theories have been proposed. Given that these extraordinary events were witnessed both in the regions of Israel and Asia Minor, one can assume that they were to some extent supernatural. While it is possible that the seismic shocks of an earthquake can travel hundreds of miles from its epicenter, a darkening of the sun midday for three hours cannot be explained by an eclipse. Furthermore, an eclipse of the sun could not have occurred at the Jewish Passover celebration during the time of a full moon.
The precise cause of the darkness is not important. What is important is that darkness signifies judgement, death and the absence of God's presence. During the time of these cataclysmic events, Jesus cried out while on the cross "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?" (Matthew 27:46). For that moment in time, God withdrew his presence and let Jesus bear the sin of the world alone. God judged the sin of the world and poured out his wrath on Jesus.
Extra-biblical writer Phlegon cited extraordinary darkness and earthquakes in the region of Asia Minor. This, together with Thallus' and Tertullian's testimonies, confirms the biblical accounts recorded in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke.
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Summary: The historicity of the open tombs narrative from Matthew 27 is well supported by literary analysis and historical evidence. As with Jesus' resurrection, the resurrection of the saints was witnessed by many in Jerusalem. Ultimately, this narrative lends credence to the reality of Jesus' resurrection.
The historicity of the open tomb narrative from Matthew 27:52-53 has been challenged by contemporary scholars. They regard this passage as legend that was added to the Gospel of Matthew to embellish the overall crucifixion/resurrection account.
The open tomb account is recorded exclusively in the Gospel of Matthew.
51The earth shook, rocks split apart, 52and tombs opened. The bodies of many godly men and women who had died were raised from the dead. 53They left the cemetery after Jesus’ resurrection, went into the holy city of Jerusalem, and appeared to many people. (Matthew 27:51-53)
In this passage we learn the following:
The fact that they appeared to many people is significant. It is important to note that the Gospel of Matthew was written 55-80 AD [HIS-EV25]. Many of Matthew's readers would have been alive at the time these events occurred and the circulation of Matthew's Gospel. Therefore, their encounter with those who were raised attests to the authenticity of these claims.
Oral tradition would also have played a part. The resurrection of the saints became part of the oral tradition not just because of Matthew's account but because of the shared experience of those who witnessed these extraordinary events. The testimonies of these witnesses would have been passed on orally from one generation to the next. Oral transition was a reliable way of perpetuating these facts.
In Ezekiel 37 and Zechariah 14:4-5, Ezekiel had a vision that the skeletal remains of the saints would be brought back to life. This prophecy is partially fulfilled by the death and resurrection of Jesus. In effect, the resurrection of the saints in the Gospel of Matthew represents the beginning of the messianic age.
Norman Geisler offers the following rationale for the historicity of this passage [REF-GEI02]:
These events were also mentioned by the apostolic fathers. They make numerous references to this event.
Perhaps the earliest writing is that of Ignatius written around 110 AD. Ignatius was a contemporary of the John the beloved disciple.
"For Says the Scripture, ‘May bodies of the saints that slept arose,’ their graves being opened. He descended, indeed, into Hades alone, but He arose accompanied by a multitude" (Ignatius to the Trallians, chap. Ix, The Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. I, p. 70).
Other apostolic and church writings from 70-300 AD corroborate these events.
This miraculous event epitomizes Jesus' resurrection power to the people of the first century and beyond.
As with the raising of Lazarus, Jesus is claiming to be "the resurrection and the life".
25Jesus said to her, "I am the resurrection and the life. Whoever believes in me, though he die, yet shall he live, 25and everyone who lives and believes in me shall never die. (John 11:25-26)
Jesus' resurrection was not an isolated event. It was accompanied by the resurrection of Lazarus and the saints. The resurrection of the saints lends credence to the reality of Jesus' own resurrection.
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Summary: Temple phenomena surrounded the events of Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection. Normal temple practices were disrupted by miraculous signs portending God's disfavor with Israel's disobedience. Ultimately, God rendered the temple and the Old Testament laws of atonement obsolete and established a new covenant with his people.
The Jewish temple was the center of religious life for the nation of Israel. It represented the very presence of God in the world (Habakkuk 2:20). The inner sanctuary, the Most Holy Place, served a critical function in atoning for the sins of the nation of Israel during Yom Kippur. It was in this holy place that the high priest encountered God, and where God revealed himself to Israel.
During the First and Second Temple periods, God often revealed himself in miraculous ways. These miracles are recorded in the Bible and the Jewish Talmud.
At the time of Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection, normal temple practices were disrupted. These disruptions were evidenced by miraculous signs portending God's disfavor with Israel's disobedience, as well as establishing God's new covenant with his people.
The tearing of the temple inner curtain in two is described in Gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke.
And behold, the curtain of the temple was torn in two, from top to bottom. (Matthew 27:51, also see Mark 15:38, Luke 23:45)
This is the curtain that separated the Holy Place from the Most Holy Place. It was a barrier between God and man. It represented the gap that existed between a holy God and sinful man. God was not directly approachable without the mediation of the High Priest who made atonement for man's sins.
This passage in Matthew is prefaced with the word behold which implies that the reader should take special notice that the curtain was torn from top to bottom. According to Josephus [REF-FJO02], the inner curtain was four inches thick. Matthew is suggesting that this event can only be explained by a work of God, not by a natural event such as an earthquake or a violent wind.
The severing of the curtain is an allusion of how Jesus' resurrection power provides unrestricted access to God's presence. This truth is clearly stated in Hebrews 10.
19We can boldly enter heaven’s Most Holy Place because of the blood of Jesus. 20By his death, Jesus opened a new and life-giving way through the curtain into the Most Holy Place. (Hebrews 10:19-20 NLT)
In effect, Jesus became the Great High Priest. He opened the curtain of the Most Holy Place for all to enter without the restrictions of the Old Testament ceremonial laws of atonement (Hebrews 6-9). Through Jesus, God establishes a new covenant with his people. This covenant replaces the old covenant (Hebrews 8:13 NLT).
Additionally, the temple in Jerusalem is replaced with the Christian's body and soul (Ephesians 2:11-22). This new temple is the dwelling place of the God the Holy Spirit inaugurated at Pentecost.
Shimon HaTzaddik (Simon the Just) officiated as high priest for forty years during the Second Temple (c. BC 516) [REF-SHI01] [REF-SHI02]. During his tenure as high priest, many temple phenomena occurred during the Yom Kippur service. However, after his death in BC 312 these phenomena ceased.
This cessation of these phenomena is recorded in the Jerusalem Talmud - Yoma 39a-b. [REF-TAL05] [REF-TAL07]
Without the presence of Shimon HaTzaddik among them, the Jewish people were no longer worthy of the many miracles that had occurred during his lifetime. For this reason, following his death, his brethren, the priests, refrained from blessing the Jewish people with the explicit name of God in the priestly blessing.
The Sages taught: During the tenure of Shimon HaTzaddik, the lot for God always arose in the High Priest’s right hand; after his death, it occurred only occasionally; but during the forty years prior to the destruction of the Second Temple, the lot for God did not arise in the High Priest’s right hand at all.
So too, the strip of crimson wool that was tied to the head of the goat that was sent to Azazel did not turn white, and
the westernmost lamp of the candelabrum did not burn continually.
And the doors of the Sanctuary opened by themselves as a sign that they would soon be opened by enemies, until Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai scolded them. He said to the Sanctuary: Sanctuary, Sanctuary, why do you frighten yourself with these signs? I know about you that you will ultimately be destroyed, and Zechariah, son of Ido, has already prophesied concerning you: "Open your doors, O Lebanon, that the fire may devour your cedars" (Zechariah 11:1), Lebanon being an appellation for the Temple. (Jerusalem Yoma 39b)
In this passage we learn of three successive stages of the Second Temple period.
During the tenure of Shimon HaTzaddik, the miracles of the lot for the Lord was always drawn in the right hand, the scarlet wool always turned white, the western lamp always stayed lit and the temple doors always remained closed. These were considered auspicious signs where God's favor was on the nation of Israel.
During the period from 30-70 AD, the lot for the Lord was always drawn in the left hand, the scarlet wool always remained crimson, the western lamp was always extinguished, and the temple doors always opened by themselves were considered signs of God's disfavor. Consequently, God's disfavor with Israel culminated in the destruction of the temple in 70 AD (Zechariah 11:1).
Both Peter and Paul summarize God's disfavor in the Book of Acts (Acts 4:11, Acts 13:46 NLT). They accused the nation of Israel of rejecting Jesus, God's ultimate sacrifice for sin.
Jesus juxtaposed the Pharisee's accusation of Jesus' blasphemy with the Pharisees' blasphemy of the Holy Spirit (Mark 3:22-29). The rejection of Jesus and God the Holy Spirit was the final transgression in the long sequence of Israel's moral decline.
The resurrection of Jesus was a major disruption to mainline Judaism. The entire Jewish religious system was turned on its head. Ultimately, God rendered the temple and the Old Testament laws of atonement obsolete and established a new covenant with his people.
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Many unexplainable, phenomenal events occurred in Jerusalem during the time of Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection. Because these events coincided in both time and location, they can be attributed to Jesus' passion. This is commonly referred to as circumstantial evidence.
Circumstantial evidence is evidence that relies on inference to connect the evidence to an assertion. It is also referred to as indirect evidence. Circumstantial evidence, in the absence of direct evidence such as eyewitness evidence, is often used in a court of law to reach a conviction. Examples of circumstantial evidence include DNA or fingerprint evidence.
In the case of Jesus, we assert that Jesus was raised from the dead. This assertion is supported by a multiplicity of independent evidence that is coincident with the location and time of Jesus passion.
The causal relationship between Jesus' crucifixion/resurrection and phenomenal events surrounding Jesus' passion is illustrated in Figure 1.
The circumstantial evidence supporting the claim of Jesus' resurrection is highly diverse. This evidence is diverse in terms of:
Given the preponderance of circumstantial evidence surrounding Jesus' passion, we conclude that these phenomenal events evidence the supernatural resurrection of Jesus.
Summary: There is a large corpus of scientific, forensic and historical evidence related to the Shroud of Turin. Based on this evidence, the Shroud of Turin accurately depicts the postmortem characteristics of the crucified body of Jesus. Specifically, evidence related to the linen cloth, scourging and medical strongly suggest that the Shroud of Turin could not have been forged during the fourteenth century.
This claim is supported by the following evidence.
Summary: Yohanan was crucified around 70 AD. His bones were discovered with a spike still intact. This discovery confirms that death by crucifixion in the first century involved spikes piercing the feet of the victim, thus fracturing of calf bones of the victim.
Yohanan Ben Ha’galgol was crucified around 70 AD. His bones were discovered in Jerusalem with a spike still intact in the heel bone. Based on the skeletal remains of Yohanan Ben Ha’galgol the following observations are made in 1985 by Drs. Zias and Sekeles from the Israel Department of Antiquities and Museums [REF-JEH01]:
These observations from the skeletal remains of Yohanan Ben Ha’galgol are consistent with the Shroud of Turin in that (1) spikes were used to affix the feet of the victim to the vertical beam of the cross, and that (2) it was common practice to break the victim's legs to prevent the victim from moving his body upward to aid breathing, and hasten death.
* For more Shroud of Turin evidence regarding Jesus' death and resurrection, please visit the following: [HIS-EV53] [HIS-EV38] [HIS-EV52] [HIS-EV54] [HIS-IS42].
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Summary: Thirteen (13) characteristics related to Jesus' crucifixion are identified in the Gospel and Old Testament accounts. All 13 characteristics are depicted in the Shroud of Turin. Therefore, the Shroud of Turin accurately depicts the crucifixion of Jesus.
The Shroud of Turin is compared with the Gospel accounts to determine if the shroud accurately depicts Jesus' crucifixion.
The following table enumerates the correspondence between the characteristics on the shroud and the biblical accounts.
Gospel Reference |
Gospel Description: | Shroud Detail |
Matthew 27:30 | Struck on Head with Reed | Swollen Cheek Abrasions on Head |
John 18:22 | Struck on Head | Swollen Cheek Abrasions on Head |
Matthew 26:67-68 Luke 22:63 John 19:3 |
Struck in the Face | Swollen Cheek |
Matthew 27:26 Mark 15:15 John 19:1 Psalm 22:17 |
Scourging with Metal-Tipped Whip (Roman Flagrum) |
Abrasions on Entire Body Lacerations Exposed Bones |
Matthew 27:29 Mark 15:17 John 19:2 |
Crown of Thorns | Puncture Wounds on Forehead & Scalp |
John 19:16-17 | Carrying Crossbeam on Shoulders | Abrasions & Smeared Blood on Back Shoulders |
Matthew 27:32 Luke 23:26 Mark 15:21 |
Unable to Carry Crossbeam Full Distance Likely Fell on Knees |
Bloody Kneecaps |
John 19:31-33 | Leg Bones not Broken | No Leg Fractures |
Matthew 27:35 John 19:18 Mark 15:24 Luke 23:33 |
Crucifixion | Nail Piercings on Wrist/Ankles |
Psalm 22:14 | Arms Dislocated Due to Hanging | Abnormal Arm Length Extension |
John 19:34 | Side Pierced w/Sword | Blood & Water Near Pleura |
Matthew 27:59 John 19:40 |
Enshrouded in Linen Cloth | Complete Front/Back Images |
Luke 24:1 | Body Not Embalmed | Image Not Obscured or Blurred |
Table 1: Correspondence of Gospel Accounts and the Shroud of Turin
All the injuries incurred by Jesus based on the biblical accounts are depicted on the Shroud of Turin. There are no injuries recorded in the gospel accounts that are not depicted on the Shroud of Turin. Therefore, there is complete consistency between the gospel accounts and the Shroud of Turin.
High resolution images of the Shroud of Turin are provided below. Click on images to enlarge.
* For more Shroud of Turin evidence regarding Jesus' death and resurrection, please visit the following: [HIS-EV53] [HIS-EV39] [HIS-EV52] [HIS-EV54] [HIS-IS42].
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Summary: The formation of the image on the Shroud of Turin is difficult to explain by natural causes. The likely explanation is that the image resulted from exposure to intense radiation that scorched the linen. Forging the image by means of a heated relief have been ruled out by most scholars. Further, the manner in which the body was removed from the linen is also a mystery. The absence of human tissue on the shroud strongly suggests the body existed the linen shortly are burial. Lastly, the presence of pollen grains and plant images on the linen endemic to the Middle East strongly suggest the burial linen originated in the region around Jerusalem according to leading botanists and palynologists.
The linen which bears the image of a crucified victim is itself shrouded in mystery. After many thorough investigations by researchers with the latest technologies, many details surrounding the origin and nature of the linen are unresolved. The researchers determined that the origin and nature of the shroud cannot be easily explained by fraudulent and natural processes.
One of the key unresolved problems is how did the image on the victim get imprinted on the shroud? There have been many theories offered and experiments performed throughout the scientific investigation of the Shroud of Turin [REF-HAB03]. To date, no one has been able to satisfactorily explain how the image was imprinted even with the latest technologies available today. Further, no one has been able to successfully reproduce an image on a linen that is characteristically identical to the image on the Shroud of Turin.
The most likely theory is that the image of the victim was imprinted on the Shroud of Turin using heat and radiation [REF-JPJ01]. Essentially, the image was imprinted or transferred to the linen by the process commonly known as scorching.
A bas-relief (heated statue) was ruled out as the method of scorching the shroud. According to Thibault Heimburger [REF-THR01], a forger would not have been able to create an image with a uniform pale-yellow color found on the Shroud of Turin using a heated bas-relief. Either the scorching would have produced a wide color distribution at high temperatures or no color at low temperatures.
Consequently, in theory, in order to obtain an image resembling the TS image, a forger would have to use a bas-relief, to heat it uniformly in a narrow range of low temperature, to apply it firmly on all parts of the bas-relief and to control the contact pressure and the contact-time.
The 'signature' of a scorch that is found in all kind of scorches, even in very light and light scorches: even at the lowest temperature, some protruding burned fibers are observed and many small opaque brown to dark burned pieces of fibers are easily found everywhere in the sticky-tape experiments. This was not the case for the direct observations with the microscope on the Shroud in 1978 or on the sticky-tapes.
Further, scorching could not have produced an image with the 3D properties found on the Shroud of Turin. Pressure would have had to be carefully applied with uniform pressure to achieve these 3D properties. This method of forgery is highly improbable given the 3D accuracy of the Shroud of Turin.
The most likely method of scorching was from some type of radiation. Since all forms of radiation were discovered in the 19th and 20th centuries, it is impossible for a forger to imprint the image using radiation in the fourteenth century.
This leads to the conclusion that the image on the shroud was formed by ultraviolet or some other form of radiation emitted by Jesus' body during his resurrection. This may have coincided with the earthquake that occurred on the first day of the week when the women returned to the tomb and found the stone rolled way (Matthew 28:2-4).
No decomposed human tissue was found on the linen. This suggests that the body exited the shroud shortly after burial. However, remnants of iron-oxide from blood were found on portions of the shroud where there was a high concentration of blood. Further, the body was probably not wrapped because many of the blood stains and clots were still intact on the shroud.
According to Luke 23:53 and John 19:40, Jesus was wrapped in a linen shroud and laid in an empty tomb. Because it was the Day of Preparation (beginning of the Sabbath), they only partially embalmed Jesus body with spices. According to Luke 24:1 and Mark 16:1, the women returned on the first day of the next week to complete the embalming of Jesus body with the spices they prepared. We can assume that Jesus' body was minimally wrapped on the Day of Preparation to make the final embalming process easier on the first day of the week. This would imply that the linen was simply laid around the back and front of Jesus' to cover the body. In so doing, the original spices would have been minimally disturbed and could have been reused in the final embalming process.
According to John 20:5-9, the linen shroud was "lying there" separate from the folded facial cloth. This implies that the linen was not folded and collapsed on the stone after the body exited the shroud. By making special mention of these details (vv. 5-6), John wants to make us aware that Peter was surprised the linen was not folded like the face cloth. It seems that Jesus when he vacated the tomb left evidence that would cause his disciples and us to question how he existed the shroud without disturbing the linen. Dr. John P. Jackson developed the Cloth Collapse Theory [REF-JPJ02] that best explains how the linen came to rest on the stone.
Botanical evidence indicates that the linen originated in Jerusalem. Dr. Avinoam Danin from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem discovered pollen grains and plant images on the Shroud of Turin that were abundant in the Jerusalem area during the time of Jesus [REF-DAN03], [REF-DAN03], [REF-DAN03]. This strongly suggests that the linen was exposed to these grains and plants during a first century burial and could not have been introduced in a fourteenth century forgery.
According to Dr. Avinoam Danin [REF-DAN03],
Dr. Uri Baruch, palynologist with the Israel Antiquities Authority analyzed most of Dr. Max Frei's 1973 sticky tape pollen specimens and ten of the twenty-five 1978 sticky tapes (taken from the Shroud of Turin). He examined 165 pollen grains, of which 45 (27.3%) were Gundelia tournefortii. ... The images of the plant and the presence of so many of its pollen grains on the Shroud prove that blooming plants were placed on the Shroud, as the pollen grains could not have been deposited by wind. G. tournefortii blooms in Israel from February (in the semi-desert warm parts) to May (in Jerusalem), hence testifying the time these plants could have been placed on the Shroud. G. tournefortii grows only in the Near East; therefore, the Shroud could have come only from the Near East (February through May).
The imprint of leaf and flower patterns from Chrysanthemum coronarium, Gundelia tournefortii, Pistacia lentiscus and Zygophyllum dumosum Boiss were also found on the Shroud of Turin [REF-DAN03]. These plants are endemic to Israel, Jordan, and Sinai regions. The northern most region in which many of these plants are found, specifically Zygophyllum, is Jericho and the Jordan River just north and east of Jerusalem where Jesus was buried.
Click on Image to Enlarge
Chrysanthemum Floral Image on Shroud of Turin
These pollen grains and plant images were likely posited on the victim's body during the burial process. They are laid on the victim in a wreath-like arrangement around his head as illustrated in the above image.
* For more Shroud of Turin evidence regarding Jesus' death and resurrection, please visit the following: [HIS-EV53] [HIS-EV39] [HIS-EV38] [HIS-EV54] [HIS-IS42].
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Summary: Details of the Roman flagrum were unknown until one was unearthed in the ancient Roman city of Herculaneum in 1709. This discovery post-dates the fourteenth century when the Shroud of Turin was allegedly forged. The scourge marks on the Shroud of Turin are consistent with the dumbbell-shaped tips found on the Roman flagrum. Further, the halo marks from the metal tips of the flagrum are only visible using ultraviolet light.
Historical records suggest that Roman scourging was a standard part of Roman judicial practices from the early Republic period (around 5th century BC) until the decline of the Roman Empire in the 4th century AD. This practice was designed to administer enough lethal blows to cause the most damage to the victim's body, yet not enough blows to kill them. Roman scourging was perfected over the centuries to inflict excruciating pain while torturing their victims to near-death.
Precise details of the Roman flagrum were unknown until one was unearthed in the ancient Roman city of Herculaneum in 1709 [REF-HER01]. This discovery post-dates the Fourteenth century when the Shroud of Turin was allegedly forged [HIS-IS42]. The discovered Roman flagrum consisted of a wooden handle, three leather thongs and metal balls at the end of each thongs. This metal objects were arranged in the shape of a dumbbell or plumbatae.
A replica of the unearthed Roman flagrum from the city of Herculaneum is depicted below.
In Stephen E. Jones' commentary on the Shroud of Turin [REF-SOT03], he cites:
"Each one of the over 100 scourge wounds on the Shroud matches exactly what would have been caused by a type of Roman flagrum buried in the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 AD. So a fourteenth century or earlier forger would have had to possess a faultless archaeological knowledge of a first century Roman scourging with a flagrum as well as make no normal artists' mistakes since each one of the over 100 scourge marks has identical dimensions. Only from the Middle Ages did artists depict the scourging of Jesus and even the best of them were vague about the details. But the scourge-marks on the Shroud are depicted with a realism that is unknown to the art of any period."
Evidence of the dumbbell-shaped scourge wounds are readily visible on the shroud image.
Further evidence from the shroud suggests that there were two lictors (scourgers) who administered the lethal blows. Based on the angle or goniometry of the plumbatae wounds, there was a lictor on each side of Jesus. The rationale for two lictors, as opposed to one, is that two could administer an equal number of wounds on each side and front of the victim's torso [REF-SOT08].
Regarding the dumbbell-shaped scourge wounds on the shroud, Jones also cites:
The scourge marks on the Shroud are physiologically accurate. When examined under a microscope, each scourge mark reveals a slightly depressed center and raised edges. Under ultraviolet light each scourge mark can be seen to have a "halo" of lighter colour surrounding it. These halos were chemically tested and found to be blood serum which is left behind after a blood clot forms and then retracts inwards as it dries, a process called syneresis. These scourge mark indented centres and raised edges on the Shroud are not visible to the naked eye, but can only be seen when examined under a microscope and the serum halos can only be seen under ultraviolet light. This is further evidence that the Shroud could not have been created by an artist in the Middle Ages, or earlier, because that knowledge about blood clot structure, let alone a microscope and an ultraviolet light source to see it, did not then exist for many centuries into the future."
According to forensic pathologist Frederick Zugibe, "scourging reduced Jesus to an exhausted, mangled mass of flesh and propelled Jesus into an early stage of hypovolemic shock" [REF-FTZ01]. Zugibe further observed that the absence of scourge marks on Jesus' arms suggests that his arms were elevated above his head allowing the thongs of the flagrum to completely encircle the torso impacting the front of Jesus body without being impeded.
There is further visual evidence that the images of blood serum above Jesus' shoulder blades were smirred due to carrying the patibulum (crossbeam) on the way to Golgotha.
Since details of the Roman flagrum and the discovery of ultraviolet light were unknown to a Fourteenth century forger, the Shroud of Turin must be genuine.
* For more evidence regarding the injuries inflicted by Roman scourging, please visit [HIS-EV65].
* For more Shroud of Turin evidence regarding Jesus' death and resurrection, please visit the following: [HIS-EV39] [HIS-EV38] [HIS-EV52] [HIS-EV54] [HIS-IS42].
Resources:
Summary: Several medical details were unknown during the fourteenth century when the Shroud of Turin was allegedly forged. Specifically, the details which are observable on the Shroud of Turin include pleural effusion and distended abdomen. Therefore, it is improbable that a forger would have known of these medical details, must less represent these details accurately on the Shroud of Turin.
Details regarding the medical conditions involving pleural effusion (John 19:34) and distended abdomen were not discovered until around the eighteenth century. These discoveries post-date the fourteenth century when the Shroud of Turin was allegedly forged.
According to the Gospel of John (John 19:34) , blood and water were released when the soldiers pierced Jesus' side with a spear. The condition of known as pleural effusion is a buildup of various fluids between the layers of tissue that line the lungs and chest cavity [REF-PLE01]. This was likely the result of the scourging and the emotional stress of the victim.
Researchers used ultraviolent light to determine that the strain from the upper chest area was clotted blood serum. Further chemical analysis on the linen was used to determine that the spot contains porphyrin (a component of blood).
The spot depicting the blood and water are clearly visible on the Shroud of Turin. (See figure below.)
For a forger to know the precise location of the pleural cavity on the victim's "side" would have been highly unlikely. All a forger had to go on was the imprecise description of the location found in John 19:34.
Further, the density of blood serum was less concentrated near the pleural cavity than other area. This indicates that the stains were composed of other clear substances such as serous fluids, urine, etc. The Apostle John refers to these liquids as "water".
The condition known as abdomen distension is a buildup of various fluids and air in the abdomen [REF-DIS01]. Abdomen distension of the victim was likely caused by a combination of asphyxiation and heart failure. This buildup of liquids and air causes the abdomen to bulge outward. A distended abdomen, a swollen abdomen, is clearly visible on the Shroud of Turin.
For a forger to know about abdomen distension in the fourteenth century would have been highly unlikely.
These two conditions were unknown by the medical profession in the fourteenth century. Therefore, it is improbable that a forger would have known of these medical conditions, must less represent these details accurately on the Shroud of Turin.
Many other medical conditions unknown to forgers in the fourteenth century are enumerated in [REF-SOT05], [REF-SOT06] and [REF-SOT07].
* For more Shroud of Turin evidence regarding Jesus' death and resurrection, please visit the following: [HIS-EV53] [HIS-EV39] [HIS-EV38] [HIS-EV52] [HIS-IS42].
Resources:
The Shroud of Turin poses an interesting dilemma for historians and scientists. It has been observed and studied by numerous scientists for many years. No one can assess with any degree of certainty if the shroud is a genuine artifact of antiquity or a forgery. The real questions regarding the artifact's authenticity are:
The Shroud of Turin on display at the Cathedral of San Giovanni Battista in Turin, Italy.
As the authenticity of the Shroud of Turin is scrutinized, we must first answer the question "Does the Shroud of Turin depict a factual crucifixion carried out by the Roman government in the first century?" To answer this question we need to compare the shroud (c. 30-33 AD) with the archaeological remains of Yohanan Ben Ha’galgol (c. 70 AD) [HIS-EV39].
Based on historical records from the first century, we know that the Romans varied their method of crucifixion. Their main objective was to torture the victim by inflicting as much pain as possible. Over time, they refined their methods.
From history, we learn that various methods were used to affix the feet and arms to the vertical and horizontal beams, respectively. Both ropes and spikes were commonly used to affix the arms and wrists to the crossbeam. The spikes were either driven between (1) the radius and ulna bones of the arm near the wrist, (2) the wrist bones referred to as the space of destot or the wrist bones referred to as the thenar furrow. Either location would adequately support the weight of the body on the cross without the use of ropes.
We also learn from history, that various methods were used to affix the feet to the vertical beam. The feet were commonly nailed to the side of the beam, or to the face of the beam. When the feet were nailed to the face of the beam, they were commonly stacked - one foot on top of another - and affixed using a single long 7" spike. In both cases the knees were bent to prevent the victim from locking their legs to aid in breathing.
While the placement of foot spikes of Yohanan Ben Ha’galgol and the victim of the Shroud of Turin are not identical, the fact remains that spikes were used to affix the victims' feet to the vertical beams.
Based on the archaeological remains of Yohanan Ben Ha’galgol, we conclude that the Shroud of Turin depicts a factual crucifixion insofar as the feet being affixed to the vertical beam using spikes.
The spike wounds of the feet on the Shroud of Turin clearly demonstrate that the victim was crucified.
As the authenticity of the Shroud of Turin is scrutinized, we must answer the next crucial question "Does the Shroud of Turin depict the crucifixion of Jesus?" To answer this question, we need to compare the shroud with the Gospel accounts of Jesus' crucifixion.
Of the characteristics identified in [HIS-EV38], the scourging, bearing the crossbeam, piercing the side with a sword, nail piercings and fracturing of legs are all common to those who are crucified by the Romans. However, the features that are unique to Jesus' crucifixion are
These unique features clearly demonstrate that the Shroud of Turin is an accurate depiction of the postmortem characteristics of Jesus' crucified body. In fact, all the injuries incurred by Jesus based on the gospel accounts are depicted in the Shroud of Turin. In other words, there are no injuries recorded in the gospel accounts that are not depicted. Therefore, there is complete consistency between the gospel accounts and the Shroud of Turin.
Another reason to attribute the Shroud of Turin to Jesus, is that a shroud of fine linen was never used on Roman criminals. As recorded in the gospel accounts, Joseph of Arimathea took and wrapped the body in a fine linen cloth and laid it in a stone tomb (Luke 23:50-53). Because it was the day of Sabbath Preparation, the women did not have adequate time to embalm the body with spices and ointments and thus enshrouded the body in a hasty manner (Luke 23:54-56). This event is evident in the Shroud of Turin because of the near-perfect depiction of a crucified person and that the image was not obscured or blurred by ointments. Typically, bodies are embalmed and wrapped during a Jewish burial. Consequently, the women planned on returning to the tomb the first day of the week to properly embalm Jesus' body (Luke 23:56).
The shroud was discovered some time before 1357. We know this because the earliest written account of the Shroud of Turin was written in 1357. This written account was known as the D'Arcis Memorandum authored by Bishop D'Arcis. It claimed the Shroud of Turin was a forgery based on the reason that the genuine shroud of Jesus could not have surfaced in France 1300 years after the death of Jesus during a time when forged relics of the Christian church abounded. It was considered highly implausible as a genuine artifact.
From the D'Arcis Memorandum account, we can establish that if the Shroud of Turin is a forgery, it must have been forged earlier than 1357.
The claims of forgery in the late fourteenth century can be disputed by current findings. These findings strongly suggest that the Shroud of Turin is highly likely the genuine burial cloth of Jesus. These findings include:
Given the following claims:
Therefore, we conclude that the Shroud of Turin is likely the genuine burial linen of Jesus.
Argument:
(P1) Jesus died a certain death by crucifixion and was buried in a tomb secured by guards [HIS-IS23].
(P2) Subsequently, hundreds of people witnessed the bodily resurrection of Jesus [HIS-IS34].
(P3) After seeing Jesus in the flesh, his disciples completely reoriented theirs lives
to serve Jesus and were martyred for their faith [HIS-IS31].
(C) Therefore, Jesus was raised from the dead.
The resurrection of Jesus is the central tenet of the Christian faith. According to the apostle Paul, if Jesus were not raised from the dead, the Christian faith would be futile and devoid of power.
14 And if Christ has not been raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your faith is useless. 15 And we apostles would all be lying about God—for we have said that God raised Christ from the grave. But that can’t be true if there is no resurrection of the dead. 16 And if there is no resurrection of the dead, then Christ has not been raised. 17 And if Christ has not been raised, then your faith is useless and you are still guilty of your sins. (1 Corinthians 15:14-17)
Therefore, it is critical to establish that Jesus' resurrection can be attested by medical, historical, and archeological evidence.
Based on forensic evidence alone it is abundantly clear that Jesus died from injuries resulting from Roman scourging and crucifixion. The details regarding scourging and crucifixion are well documented by historical Roman records and the Gospel accounts. Essentially, the victim was brutally tortured to death. This is why Tacitus refers to crucifixion as the extreme penalty [HIS-EV61].
The Shroud of Turin [HIS-IS42] illustrates the brutality of crucifixion. The linen clearly depicts severe hemorrhaging and other fatal conditions that would have resulted in death.
According to the Gospel accounts, Jesus was buried in the tomb of Joseph of Arimathea. This tomb was hewn stone and designed to be sealed by a heavy circular stone. This sealing stone, once installed, secured the entrance to the tomb making it exceedingly difficult to enter the tomb. This sealing stone was intended to be immovable and thus permanent.
Pilate and the Pharisees further secured the stone with a Roman seal. This seal officially authenticated that the tomb was in fact the burial tomb of Jesus. Guards were posted 24/7 to ensure that the tomb would not be disturbed.
This evidence attests to the finality of the death and burial of Jesus.
Jesus appeared on 13 separate occasions to 500+ people over the span of 40 days [HIS-IS34]. His resurrection appearances were not isolated incidents. He appeared in private and in public. He appeared to different people, at different times and in different locations.
These appearances were eye witnessed by people who knew him. In many cases these people had a personal encounter with the risen Jesus. Many touched him, spoke with him and interacted with him in a physical manner. These people were absolutely convinced Jesus was alive in bodily form.
After encountering the risen Jesus, people dramatically reoriented their lives. Their lives were marked by an unwavering, deep-seated commitment to Jesus' teaching and mission. This dramatic shift from skepticism/cowardice to belief/boldness can only be explained by Jesus' resurrection. No other event would have produced such a dramatic change in their lives.
To demonstrate their solidarity to Jesus, many of his disciples were persecuted and martyred. This includes notable, first century church leaders such as Peter [HIS-EV58], John, James [HIS-EV56], and Paul [HIS-EV57], and the apostolic fathers that followed in the footsteps. It also includes millions of Christians martyred for their faith throughout the ages [HIS-EV57]. This commitment was more than an act of human willpower. It was a work of God the Holy Spirit in their lives.
Based on the preponderance of evidence, the most reasonable conclusion is that Jesus was raised from the dead by the power of God. Alternate theories such as swooning, stolen body, delusions, and hallucinations are not supported by the evidence.
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